九乡新闻网铁血丹心粤语谐音:整理后的薪酬相关部分资料
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Introduction to Employee T & D
1. Definition of training.
Training is a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees’ learning of job-related competencies, including knowledge, skills or behaviors that are critical for successful job performance.
2. Importance of training.
1. Economic cycles
2. Globalization
3. Increased value placed on intangible assets and human capital
4. Focus on link to business strategy
5. Changing demographics and diversity of the work force
6. Talent management
7. Customer service and quality emphasis
8. New technology
9. High-performance work systems
3. Competencies & positions of training professionals
Roles of training professionals
1. Learning Strategist determines how workplace learning can be best used to help meet the company’s business strategy.
2. Business Partner uses business and industry knowledge to crate training that improves performance.
3. Project Manager plans, obtains, and monitors the effective delivery of learning and performance solutions to support the business.
4. Professional Specialist designs, develops, delivers, and evaluates learning and performance solutions.
Interpersonal Skills
Business/Management Skills
Personal Skills
1. Building trust
2. Communicating effectively
3. Influencing stakeholders
4. Leveraging diversity
5. Networking and Partnering
1. Analyzing needs and Proposing solutions
2. Applying business acumen
3. Driving results
4. Planning and Implementing assignments
5. Thinking strategically
1. Demonstrating adaptability
2. Modeling personal development
4. Organizational characteristics which influence training
1. Roles of Employees and Managers
2. Top Management Support
3. Integration of business units
4. Global Presence
5. Business Conditions
6. Other Human Resource Management Practices
7. Extent of Unionization
8. Staff Involvement in Training and Development
5. Changing roles of training
6. Changing work roles which influence training
Strategy
Emphasis
Key issues
Training implications
Concentration
1. Increased market share
2. Reduced operating costs
3. Market niche created or maintained
1. Skill currency
2. Development of existing work force
1. Team building
2. Cross training
3. Specialized programs
Internal growth
1. Market development
2. Product development
3. Innovation
4. Joint ventures
1. Creation of new jobs
and tasks
2. Innovation
1. Cultural training
2. Technical competence in jobs
3. Manager training in feedback and communication
External growth
1. Horizontal integration
2. Vertical integration
3. Concentric diversification
1. Integration
2. Redundancy
3. Restructuring
1. Integration of training systems
2. Methods and procedures of combined firms
Disinvestment
1. Retrenchment
2. Turnaround
3. Divestiture
4. Liquidation
1. Efficiency
1. Leadership training
2. Job-search skills training
3. Outplacement assistance
7. Training needs in different stages
1. Concentration Strategy focuses on increasing market share, reducing costs, or creating and maintaining a market niche for products and services.
2. Internal Growth Strategy focuses on new market and product development, innovation, and joint ventures.
3. External Growth Strategy emphasizes acquiring vendors and suppliers or buying businesses that allow the company to expand into new markets.
4. Disinvestment Strategy emphasizes liquidation and divestiture of business.
Needs Assessment
1. Definition of needs assessment
Needs assessment refers to the process used to determine whether training is necessary.
Organizational Analysis
1. Strategic Direction
2. Support of Managers, Peers and Employees for Training Activities
3. Training Resources
Do We Want To Devote Time
and Money For Training?
Person Characteristics
Input
Output
Consequences
Feedback
Task Analysis or Develop
a Competency Model
Work Activity (Task)
KSAs
Working Conditions
2. The Needs Assessment Process
3. Methods used in needs assessment
Observation
Questionnaires
Interviews
Focus Groups
Documentation
Online Technology (Software)
Benchmarking
4. Participation in needs assessment
Upper-level managers
Mid-level managers
Trainers
Organizational analysis
Is training important to achieve our business objects? How does training support our business strategy?
What are the threats to our talent base?
Do I want to spend money on training? How much?
How will training and development help meet my business goal?
Are we retaining top talent?
Do I have the budget to buy training services?
Will managers support training?
Person analysis
What functions or business units need training?
What do employees need to do to accomplish our business objectives?
Who should be trained?
Managers? Professionals?
Core employees?
How will I identify which employees need training?
Task analysis
Dose the company have people with the knowledge, skills, and abilities or competencies needs to compete in the marketplace?
For what jobs can training make the biggest difference in product quality or customer service?
For what tasks should employees be trained? What knowledge, skills, ability, or other characteristics are necessary
5. Competency Model definition and process
A competency model identifies the competencies necessary for each job as well as the knolwedge, skills, behavior, and personality characteristics underlying each competency.
Identify jobs,
Positions,
or Job Families
Conduct Interviews and
Focus Groups with Top Performers
Develop competencies and a Competency Model
Validate
and Review
the Model
Conduct Business
and
Strategy Analysis
Learning: Theories & Program Design
1. 5 types of learning outcome
Type of learning outcome
Description of capability
Example
Verbal Information
State, tell, or describe previously stored information
State three reasons for following company safety procedures
Intellectual Skills
Apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve problems and generate products
Design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements
Motor Skills
Execute a physical action with precision and timing
Shoot a gun and consistently hit a small moving target
Attitudes
Choose a personal course of action
Choose to respond to all incoming mail within 24 hours
Cognitive Strategies
Manage one’s own thinking and learning processes
Selectively use three different strategies to diagnose engine malfunctions
2. Learning theories and their implications for instructional design
Reinforcement Theory
1. From a training perspective, reinforcement theory suggests that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive (and negative). Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners’ acquiring KSAs
2. E.g Behavior modification
Social Learning Theory
1. According to social learning theory, learning is influenced by a person’s self-efficacy, which is one determinant of readiness to learn.
2. Social learning theory is the primary basis for behavior modeling training and has influenced the development of multimedia training programs.
Goal setting Theories
1. Goal setting theory influences training methods to be considered.
2. Goal setting theory also is used in training program design because it suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives.
Goal orientation Theories
1. Goal orientation theory is believed to affect the amount of effort a trainee will expend in learning (motivation to learn).
2. Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning in comparison to learners with a performance orientation.
Need Theories
1. Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should identify trainees’ needs and communicate how training program content relates to fulfilling these needs.
2. Another implications of need theory relates to providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend
Expectancy Theory
1. Expectancy theory suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe they can learn the content of the program; learning is linked to outcomes; and employees value these outcomes.
Adult Learning Theory
1. Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs because the audience for many such programs tends to be adults, most of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal education setting.
2. Implications of Adult learning theory for training as following: self-concept, experience, readiness, time perspective, orientation to learning.
Information Processing Theory
1. Besides emphasizing the internal processes needed to capture, store, retrieve, and respond to message, the information processing model highlights how external events influence learning.
3. Adult Learning Theory
Adult Learning Theory was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn.
Pedagogy: the art and science of teaching children. It gives the instructor major responsibility for making decisions about learning content, method, and evaluation.
Andragogy: the theory of adult learning. (Malcolm Knowles)
Design Issue
Implications
Self – concept
Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction
Experience
Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications
Readiness
Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies
Time perspective
Immediate application of content
Orientation to learning
Problem – centered instead of subject – centered
4. The Learning Process
Processes of learning
External instructional events
Forms of instruction
Expectancy
Informing the learner of the lesson objective
Demonstrate the expected performance
Perception
Presenting stimuli with distinctive features
Use formatting and figures in text to emphasize features
Working storage
Limiting the amount to be learned
Chunk lengthier material
Semantic encoding
Providing learning guidance
Provide verbal links to a larger meaningful context
Long-term storage
Elaborating the amount to be learned
Provide a variety of context and situations during practice
Retrieval
Providing cues that are used in recall
Suggest cues that elicit the recall of material
Generalizing
Enhance retention and learning transfer
Provide verbal links to additional complexes of information
Gratifying
Providing feedback about performance correctness
Provide feedback on degree of accuracy and timing of performance
5. Impact of internal and external conditions on learning
Internal conditions refer to processes within the learner that must be present for learning to occur. These processes include hwo information is registered, stored in memory, and recalled.
External conditions refer to processes in the learning environment that facilitate learning. These condiitons include the physical learning environment as well as opportunities to practice ad receive feedback and reinforcement.
6. Considerations in designing effective training
Selecting and Preparing the Training Site
Choosing Trainers
Making the training Site and Instruction Conductive to Learning
Program Design
Transfer of Training
1. Definition of transfer of training
Transfer of training refers to trainees’ effectively and continually applying what they learned in training (knowledge, skills, behaviors, cognitive strategies) to their jobs.
2. Work environment characteristics which influence the transfer of training
Climate for Transfer
Manager Support
Peer Support
Opportunity to Use Learned Capabilities
Technological Support
3. Implication of cognitive theory on the transfer of training
Cognitive theory of transfer refers to the likelihood of transfer depends on the trainees’ ability to retrieve learned capabilities.
It suggests that the likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learnd capability.
4. Technologies which can be used to support the transfer of training
Electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) are computer applications that can provide, as requested, skills training, information access, and expert advice.
5. Definition and key features of a learning organization
A learning organization is a company that has an enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change.
Key features of a learning organization
Supportive learning Environment
Learning Processes and Practices
Managers Reinforce Learning
Thoughtful review of the company’s process is encouraged
Knowledge creation, dissemination, sharing, and application are practiced
Learning is rewarded, promoted, and supported
Training Evaluation
1. Definition of evaluation
Training Evaluation refers to the process of collecting the outcomes needed to determine whether training is effective.
2. Reasons for evaluating training
1. To identify the program’s strengths and weaknesses.
2. To assess whether the content, organization, and administration of the program contribute to learning and the use of training content on the job.
3. To identify which trainees benefit most or least from the program.
4. To assist in marketing programs through the collection of information from participants about whether they would recommend the program to others, why they attended the program, and their level of satisfaction with the program.
5. To determine the financial benefits and costs of the program.
6. To compare the costs and benefits of training versus nontraining investments.
7. To compare the costs and benefits of different training programs to choose the best program.
3. The evaluation process
1. Conduct a needs analysis
2. Develop Measurable Learning Outcomes and Analyze Transfer of Training
3. Develop Outcome Measures
4. Choose an Evaluation Strategy
5. Plan and Execute the Evaluation
PS.
1. The first step is to conduct a needs analysis. It helps identify what knowledge, skills, behavior, or other learned capabilities are needed. It also helps identify where the training is expected to have an impact. It helps focus the evaluation by identify the purpose of the program, the resources needed (human, financial, company), and the outcomes
2. The second step is to develop measurable learning objectives and analyze transfer of training. This step is to identify specific, measurable training objectives to guide the program. Analysis of the work environment to determine transfer of training can be useful for determing how training content will be used on the job.
3. The third step is to develop outcome measures. Based on the learning objectives and analysis of transfer of training, outcome measures are designed to assess the extent to which learning and transfer have occurred.
4. The fourth step is to choose an evaluation strategy. This step is to determine an evaluation strategy.
Factors such as expertise, how quickly the information is needed, change potential, and the organizational culture should be considered in choosing a design.
5. The final step is to plan an execute the evaluation. Planning and executing the evalution involves previewing the program (formative evalution) as well as collecting training outcomes according to the evalution design.
4. Outcome used in evaluating training programs
1. Reaction Outcomes
2. Learning or Cognitive Outcomes
3. Behavior and Skill-based Outcomes
4. Affective Outcomes
5. Results Outcomes
6. Return on Investment
5. Different evaluation designs – strategies and weaknesses
Types of evaluation designs vary as to whether they include a pretest and posttest, a control or comparison group and randomization. The chapter provides an example of each design.
1. The posttest only design involves collecting only posttraining outcome measures. It would be strengthened by the use of a control group, which would help to rule out alternative explanations for changes in performance.
2. The pretest/posttest design involves collecting both pretraining and posttraining outcome measures to determine whether a change has occurred, but without a control group which helps to rule out alternative explanations for any change that does occur.
3. The pretest/posttest with comparison group design includes pretraining and posttraining outcome measurements as well as a comparison group in addition to the group that receives training. If the posttraining improvement is greater for the group that receives training, as we would expect, this provides evidence that training was responsible for the change.
4. The time series design involves collecting outcome measurements at periodic intervals pre- and posttraining. A comparison group may also be used. Time series allows for an analysis of outcomes, e.g., accident rates, productivity, etc., over time to observe any changes that occur (see Table 6.9, p. 215). The strength of this design can be improved by using reversal, which refers to a time period in which participants no longer receive the training intervention.
5. The Solomon Four-Group design combines the pretest/posttest comparison group design and the posttest-only control group design. It involves the use of four groups: a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured both pre- and posttraining and a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured only after training. This design provides the most controls for internal and external validity, but is also the most difficult to employ.
6. Determining the Return on Investment
1. Cost-benefit analysis of training is the process of determining the net economic benefits of training using accounting methods. Training cost information is important for several reasons:
(1) To understand total expenditures for training, including direct and indirect costs. .
(2) To compare the costs of alternative training programs.
(3) To evaluate the proportion of the training budget spent on the development of training, administrative costs, and evaluation as well as how much is spent on various types of employees e.g., exempt versus nonexempt.
(4) To control costs.
2. Determining costs
(1) The resource requirements model compares equipment, facilities, personnel, and materials costs across different stages of the training process (needs assessment, development, training design, implementation, and evaluation).
(2) There are seven categories of cost sources: costs related to program development or purchase; instructional materials; equipment and hardware; facilities; travel and lodging; and salary of the trainer and support staff along with the cost of either lost productivity or replacement workers while trainees are away from their jobs for the training.
3. Determining benefits can be done via a number of methods, including:
(1) Technical, practitioner and academic literature summarizes benefits of training programs.
(2) Pilot training programs assess the benefits from a small group of trainees before a company commits more resources.
(3) Observing successful job performers can help to determine what successful job performers do differently than unsuccessful performers.
(4) Asking trainees and their managers to provide estimates of training benefits.
Traditional training methods
Presentation Methods
Hands-On Methods
Group Building Methods
1 Lecture
2 Audiovisual Techniques
1. On-the-Job Training (OJT)
-self-directed learning
-apprenticeship
2. Simulations
3. Case Studies
4. Business Games
5. Role Plays
6. Behavior Modeling
1 Adventure Learning
2 Team Training
- cross training
- coordination training
- team leader training
3 Action Learning
- Six Sigma
- black belt training
1. Presentation methods
Presentation methods are those means of training delivery in which trainees are the passive recipients of information, such as facts or information about processes or problem solving methods.
There are two types of presentation methods, lecture and audiovisual instruction.
2. Hands-on methods
Hands-On Methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process, including on-the-job training (OJAT), self-directed learning, apprenticeship, simulation, case study, business games, role plays, and behavior modeling.
(1) On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors.
Advantages: OJT, which takes a number of forms including apprenticeships and self-directed learning, requires less time or money investment; it utilizes expertise among peers and managers; and can be effective for cross-training employees within a department or team.
The disadvantages of OJT include that it is typically unstructured and, therefore, managers and peers may not use the same process to complete the same task; bad habits may be passed on; demonstration may be flawed and the opportunities for practice and feedback not provided--all resulting in poorly trained employees.
(2) Self-directed learning is an approach to training that places responsibility for learning on the employee/learner, e.g., when the learning will take place and with whom.
The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at their own pace and to receive feedback about their learning; it requires fewer training staff; reduces the costs of facilities and travel; it allows for constant access to training materials; and makes multiple-site training more realistic.
The potential disadvantages of self-directed learning include the responsibility it places on trainees, requiring them to be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own. This may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development costs in terms of time and money.
(3) Apprenticeship is a work-study type training method involving both on-the-job training and classroom and typically sponsored either by the company or by the union.
Advantages of apprenticeships include the fact that learners are paid while they learn, with wages typically increasing as their skills do; the effective combination of learning principles in the classroom and having the opportunity to practice what they’ve learned on the job; and that they typically result in full-time employment for trainees.
The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the historically restricted access to apprenticeship programs for women and minorities; the lack of guarantee that employment will follow completion of the program; and the somewhat narrow skill focus of current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade).
(4) A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation; with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.
Advantages of simulation include allowing trainees to learn production and process skills first hand without being engaged in the actual flow of production and without the fear of making a mistake in the actual work environment; and allowing for the observation and evaluation of trainees’ performance followed by feedback.
Disadvantages: Simulators need to have high fidelity to the work situation, i.e., they need to have identical elements to those on the job; they are expensive to develop and require continuous maintenance and updating.
(5) A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicating the appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done differently.
Advantages: The cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers and many other professionals; they help trainees to take risks given uncertain outcomes; and they require high trainee participation.
Disadvantages: Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation.
(6) Business games require trainee to actively gather information, analyze the information, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. The games should reflect all aspects of management practice, including labor relations, marketing, and finance.
Advantages of business games in the participativeness of the method; and the extent to which it mirrors actual managerial tasks.
Disadvantages include the time-intensive development that may be required; and the fact that the competition of the game itself may overshadow learning objectives
(7) Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees to act out characters and based on situations with which they have been provided.
Advantages: Role play differs from simulation in that role plays provide limited information regarding the situation, which simulation is more detailed. Further, role play focuses on “soft skills” or interpersonal skills while simulation typically focuses on “hard skills” or technical skills. Simulation requires procedural responses on the part of the trainee; role play requires mental and emotional reactions to other trainees.
Disadvantages: To be effective, it is critical that role plays be preceded by an explanation of the purpose of the activity; clear instructions need to be given; monitoring and feedback from the facilitator are needed; and debriefing, or helping trainees to understand the experience, is critical.
(8) Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for the trainees to attempt to replicate through practice.
Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.
3. Group-building methods
Group Building Methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. They involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.
(1) Adventure learning, also known as outdoor training or wilderness training, is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, and problem solving and conflict management skills, through structured outdoor (or “mock outdoor”) activities.
Advantages of adventure learning include allowing trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a situation not governed by formal business rules; that trainees share a strong emotional experience which may open them to change; that the exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and behaviors; and the exercises can be highly self-enlightening, invigorating and self-esteem enhancing.
Disadvantages include the highly physically demanding and risky nature of many adventure learning activities; the company’s risk for negligence claims due to personal injury, emotional distress or invasion of privacy; the high cost of such activities; and the lack of evidence that transfer of what is learned occurs.
(2) Team training involves coordinating the performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors) of employees who work interdependently to achieve common goals
It typically involves multiple methods of delivery, such as lecture, video, role plays and simulations.
(3) Action learning involves providing teams or work groups (usually 6-30 employees) an actual problem to work on solving through an action plan for which they are held accountable to carry out.
Action learning, which may have similar objectives to team training, is widespread in Europe and is just starting to be used in the U.S.
It has not been formally evaluated, but action learning appears to be an effective means of learning and transfer of learning because of its realness.
4. Factors affecting the selection of training methods
Factors to consider in choosing training methods include: The intended learning outcomes; the learning environment needed; the issue of transferring learning; cost; and effectiveness under the given circumstances.
Table 7-10 illustrates several trends:
(1) There is considerable overlap in learning outcomes across the various training methods.
(2) Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation (passive) methods.
(3) The hands-on methods also tend to be the more expensive methods, however, and budgets are frequently tight. Thus, these issues have to be balanced.
The Future of Training and Development
1. Future
Introduction to Employee T & D
1. Definition of training.
Training is a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees’ learning of job-related competencies, including knowledge, skills or behaviors that are critical for successful job performance.
2. Importance of training.
1. Economic cycles
2. Globalization
3. Increased value placed on intangible assets and human capital
4. Focus on link to business strategy
5. Changing demographics and diversity of the work force
6. Talent management
7. Customer service and quality emphasis
8. New technology
9. High-performance work systems
3. Competencies & positions of training professionals
Roles of training professionals
1. Learning Strategist determines how workplace learning can be best used to help meet the company’s business strategy.
2. Business Partner uses business and industry knowledge to crate training that improves performance.
3. Project Manager plans, obtains, and monitors the effective delivery of learning and performance solutions to support the business.
4. Professional Specialist designs, develops, delivers, and evaluates learning and performance solutions.
Interpersonal Skills
Business/Management Skills
Personal Skills
1. Building trust
2. Communicating effectively
3. Influencing stakeholders
4. Leveraging diversity
5. Networking and Partnering
1. Analyzing needs and Proposing solutions
2. Applying business acumen
3. Driving results
4. Planning and Implementing assignments
5. Thinking strategically
1. Demonstrating adaptability
2. Modeling personal development
4. Organizational characteristics which influence training
1. Roles of Employees and Managers
2. Top Management Support
3. Integration of business units
4. Global Presence
5. Business Conditions
6. Other Human Resource Management Practices
7. Extent of Unionization
8. Staff Involvement in Training and Development
5. Changing roles of training
6. Changing work roles which influence training
Strategy
Emphasis
Key issues
Training implications
Concentration
1. Increased market share
2. Reduced operating costs
3. Market niche created or maintained
1. Skill currency
2. Development of existing work force
1. Team building
2. Cross training
3. Specialized programs
Internal growth
1. Market development
2. Product development
3. Innovation
4. Joint ventures
1. Creation of new jobs
and tasks
2. Innovation
1. Cultural training
2. Technical competence in jobs
3. Manager training in feedback and communication
External growth
1. Horizontal integration
2. Vertical integration
3. Concentric diversification
1. Integration
2. Redundancy
3. Restructuring
1. Integration of training systems
2. Methods and procedures of combined firms
Disinvestment
1. Retrenchment
2. Turnaround
3. Divestiture
4. Liquidation
1. Efficiency
1. Leadership training
2. Job-search skills training
3. Outplacement assistance
7. Training needs in different stages
1. Concentration Strategy focuses on increasing market share, reducing costs, or creating and maintaining a market niche for products and services.
2. Internal Growth Strategy focuses on new market and product development, innovation, and joint ventures.
3. External Growth Strategy emphasizes acquiring vendors and suppliers or buying businesses that allow the company to expand into new markets.
4. Disinvestment Strategy emphasizes liquidation and divestiture of business.
Needs Assessment
1. Definition of needs assessment
Needs assessment refers to the process used to determine whether training is necessary.
Organizational Analysis
1. Strategic Direction
2. Support of Managers, Peers and Employees for Training Activities
3. Training Resources
Do We Want To Devote Time
and Money For Training?
Person Characteristics
Input
Output
Consequences
Feedback
Task Analysis or Develop
a Competency Model
Work Activity (Task)
KSAs
Working Conditions
2. The Needs Assessment Process
3. Methods used in needs assessment
Observation
Questionnaires
Interviews
Focus Groups
Documentation
Online Technology (Software)
Benchmarking
4. Participation in needs assessment
Upper-level managers
Mid-level managers
Trainers
Organizational analysis
Is training important to achieve our business objects? How does training support our business strategy?
What are the threats to our talent base?
Do I want to spend money on training? How much?
How will training and development help meet my business goal?
Are we retaining top talent?
Do I have the budget to buy training services?
Will managers support training?
Person analysis
What functions or business units need training?
What do employees need to do to accomplish our business objectives?
Who should be trained?
Managers? Professionals?
Core employees?
How will I identify which employees need training?
Task analysis
Dose the company have people with the knowledge, skills, and abilities or competencies needs to compete in the marketplace?
For what jobs can training make the biggest difference in product quality or customer service?
For what tasks should employees be trained? What knowledge, skills, ability, or other characteristics are necessary
5. Competency Model definition and process
A competency model identifies the competencies necessary for each job as well as the knolwedge, skills, behavior, and personality characteristics underlying each competency.
Identify jobs,
Positions,
or Job Families
Conduct Interviews and
Focus Groups with Top Performers
Develop competencies and a Competency Model
Validate
and Review
the Model
Conduct Business
and
Strategy Analysis
Learning: Theories & Program Design
1. 5 types of learning outcome
Type of learning outcome
Description of capability
Example
Verbal Information
State, tell, or describe previously stored information
State three reasons for following company safety procedures
Intellectual Skills
Apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve problems and generate products
Design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements
Motor Skills
Execute a physical action with precision and timing
Shoot a gun and consistently hit a small moving target
Attitudes
Choose a personal course of action
Choose to respond to all incoming mail within 24 hours
Cognitive Strategies
Manage one’s own thinking and learning processes
Selectively use three different strategies to diagnose engine malfunctions
2. Learning theories and their implications for instructional design
Reinforcement Theory
1. From a training perspective, reinforcement theory suggests that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive (and negative). Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners’ acquiring KSAs
2. E.g Behavior modification
Social Learning Theory
1. According to social learning theory, learning is influenced by a person’s self-efficacy, which is one determinant of readiness to learn.
2. Social learning theory is the primary basis for behavior modeling training and has influenced the development of multimedia training programs.
Goal setting Theories
1. Goal setting theory influences training methods to be considered.
2. Goal setting theory also is used in training program design because it suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives.
Goal orientation Theories
1. Goal orientation theory is believed to affect the amount of effort a trainee will expend in learning (motivation to learn).
2. Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning in comparison to learners with a performance orientation.
Need Theories
1. Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should identify trainees’ needs and communicate how training program content relates to fulfilling these needs.
2. Another implications of need theory relates to providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend
Expectancy Theory
1. Expectancy theory suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe they can learn the content of the program; learning is linked to outcomes; and employees value these outcomes.
Adult Learning Theory
1. Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs because the audience for many such programs tends to be adults, most of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal education setting.
2. Implications of Adult learning theory for training as following: self-concept, experience, readiness, time perspective, orientation to learning.
Information Processing Theory
1. Besides emphasizing the internal processes needed to capture, store, retrieve, and respond to message, the information processing model highlights how external events influence learning.
3. Adult Learning Theory
Adult Learning Theory was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn.
Pedagogy: the art and science of teaching children. It gives the instructor major responsibility for making decisions about learning content, method, and evaluation.
Andragogy: the theory of adult learning. (Malcolm Knowles)
Design Issue
Implications
Self – concept
Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction
Experience
Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications
Readiness
Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies
Time perspective
Immediate application of content
Orientation to learning
Problem – centered instead of subject – centered
4. The Learning Process
Processes of learning
External instructional events
Forms of instruction
Expectancy
Informing the learner of the lesson objective
Demonstrate the expected performance
Perception
Presenting stimuli with distinctive features
Use formatting and figures in text to emphasize features
Working storage
Limiting the amount to be learned
Chunk lengthier material
Semantic encoding
Providing learning guidance
Provide verbal links to a larger meaningful context
Long-term storage
Elaborating the amount to be learned
Provide a variety of context and situations during practice
Retrieval
Providing cues that are used in recall
Suggest cues that elicit the recall of material
Generalizing
Enhance retention and learning transfer
Provide verbal links to additional complexes of information
Gratifying
Providing feedback about performance correctness
Provide feedback on degree of accuracy and timing of performance
5. Impact of internal and external conditions on learning
Internal conditions refer to processes within the learner that must be present for learning to occur. These processes include hwo information is registered, stored in memory, and recalled.
External conditions refer to processes in the learning environment that facilitate learning. These condiitons include the physical learning environment as well as opportunities to practice ad receive feedback and reinforcement.
6. Considerations in designing effective training
Selecting and Preparing the Training Site
Choosing Trainers
Making the training Site and Instruction Conductive to Learning
Program Design
Transfer of Training
1. Definition of transfer of training
Transfer of training refers to trainees’ effectively and continually applying what they learned in training (knowledge, skills, behaviors, cognitive strategies) to their jobs.
2. Work environment characteristics which influence the transfer of training
Climate for Transfer
Manager Support
Peer Support
Opportunity to Use Learned Capabilities
Technological Support
3. Implication of cognitive theory on the transfer of training
Cognitive theory of transfer refers to the likelihood of transfer depends on the trainees’ ability to retrieve learned capabilities.
It suggests that the likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learnd capability.
4. Technologies which can be used to support the transfer of training
Electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) are computer applications that can provide, as requested, skills training, information access, and expert advice.
5. Definition and key features of a learning organization
A learning organization is a company that has an enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change.
Key features of a learning organization
Supportive learning Environment
Learning Processes and Practices
Managers Reinforce Learning
Thoughtful review of the company’s process is encouraged
Knowledge creation, dissemination, sharing, and application are practiced
Learning is rewarded, promoted, and supported
Training Evaluation
1. Definition of evaluation
Training Evaluation refers to the process of collecting the outcomes needed to determine whether training is effective.
2. Reasons for evaluating training
1. To identify the program’s strengths and weaknesses.
2. To assess whether the content, organization, and administration of the program contribute to learning and the use of training content on the job.
3. To identify which trainees benefit most or least from the program.
4. To assist in marketing programs through the collection of information from participants about whether they would recommend the program to others, why they attended the program, and their level of satisfaction with the program.
5. To determine the financial benefits and costs of the program.
6. To compare the costs and benefits of training versus nontraining investments.
7. To compare the costs and benefits of different training programs to choose the best program.
3. The evaluation process
1. Conduct a needs analysis
2. Develop Measurable Learning Outcomes and Analyze Transfer of Training
3. Develop Outcome Measures
4. Choose an Evaluation Strategy
5. Plan and Execute the Evaluation
PS.
1. The first step is to conduct a needs analysis. It helps identify what knowledge, skills, behavior, or other learned capabilities are needed. It also helps identify where the training is expected to have an impact. It helps focus the evaluation by identify the purpose of the program, the resources needed (human, financial, company), and the outcomes
2. The second step is to develop measurable learning objectives and analyze transfer of training. This step is to identify specific, measurable training objectives to guide the program. Analysis of the work environment to determine transfer of training can be useful for determing how training content will be used on the job.
3. The third step is to develop outcome measures. Based on the learning objectives and analysis of transfer of training, outcome measures are designed to assess the extent to which learning and transfer have occurred.
4. The fourth step is to choose an evaluation strategy. This step is to determine an evaluation strategy.
Factors such as expertise, how quickly the information is needed, change potential, and the organizational culture should be considered in choosing a design.
5. The final step is to plan an execute the evaluation. Planning and executing the evalution involves previewing the program (formative evalution) as well as collecting training outcomes according to the evalution design.
4. Outcome used in evaluating training programs
1. Reaction Outcomes
2. Learning or Cognitive Outcomes
3. Behavior and Skill-based Outcomes
4. Affective Outcomes
5. Results Outcomes
6. Return on Investment
5. Different evaluation designs – strategies and weaknesses
Types of evaluation designs vary as to whether they include a pretest and posttest, a control or comparison group and randomization. The chapter provides an example of each design.
1. The posttest only design involves collecting only posttraining outcome measures. It would be strengthened by the use of a control group, which would help to rule out alternative explanations for changes in performance.
2. The pretest/posttest design involves collecting both pretraining and posttraining outcome measures to determine whether a change has occurred, but without a control group which helps to rule out alternative explanations for any change that does occur.
3. The pretest/posttest with comparison group design includes pretraining and posttraining outcome measurements as well as a comparison group in addition to the group that receives training. If the posttraining improvement is greater for the group that receives training, as we would expect, this provides evidence that training was responsible for the change.
4. The time series design involves collecting outcome measurements at periodic intervals pre- and posttraining. A comparison group may also be used. Time series allows for an analysis of outcomes, e.g., accident rates, productivity, etc., over time to observe any changes that occur (see Table 6.9, p. 215). The strength of this design can be improved by using reversal, which refers to a time period in which participants no longer receive the training intervention.
5. The Solomon Four-Group design combines the pretest/posttest comparison group design and the posttest-only control group design. It involves the use of four groups: a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured both pre- and posttraining and a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured only after training. This design provides the most controls for internal and external validity, but is also the most difficult to employ.
6. Determining the Return on Investment
1. Cost-benefit analysis of training is the process of determining the net economic benefits of training using accounting methods. Training cost information is important for several reasons:
(1) To understand total expenditures for training, including direct and indirect costs. .
(2) To compare the costs of alternative training programs.
(3) To evaluate the proportion of the training budget spent on the development of training, administrative costs, and evaluation as well as how much is spent on various types of employees e.g., exempt versus nonexempt.
(4) To control costs.
2. Determining costs
(1) The resource requirements model compares equipment, facilities, personnel, and materials costs across different stages of the training process (needs assessment, development, training design, implementation, and evaluation).
(2) There are seven categories of cost sources: costs related to program development or purchase; instructional materials; equipment and hardware; facilities; travel and lodging; and salary of the trainer and support staff along with the cost of either lost productivity or replacement workers while trainees are away from their jobs for the training.
3. Determining benefits can be done via a number of methods, including:
(1) Technical, practitioner and academic literature summarizes benefits of training programs.
(2) Pilot training programs assess the benefits from a small group of trainees before a company commits more resources.
(3) Observing successful job performers can help to determine what successful job performers do differently than unsuccessful performers.
(4) Asking trainees and their managers to provide estimates of training benefits.
Traditional training methods
Presentation Methods
Hands-On Methods
Group Building Methods
1 Lecture
2 Audiovisual Techniques
1. On-the-Job Training (OJT)
-self-directed learning
-apprenticeship
2. Simulations
3. Case Studies
4. Business Games
5. Role Plays
6. Behavior Modeling
1 Adventure Learning
2 Team Training
- cross training
- coordination training
- team leader training
3 Action Learning
- Six Sigma
- black belt training
1. Presentation methods
Presentation methods are those means of training delivery in which trainees are the passive recipients of information, such as facts or information about processes or problem solving methods.
There are two types of presentation methods, lecture and audiovisual instruction.
2. Hands-on methods
Hands-On Methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process, including on-the-job training (OJAT), self-directed learning, apprenticeship, simulation, case study, business games, role plays, and behavior modeling.
(1) On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors.
Advantages: OJT, which takes a number of forms including apprenticeships and self-directed learning, requires less time or money investment; it utilizes expertise among peers and managers; and can be effective for cross-training employees within a department or team.
The disadvantages of OJT include that it is typically unstructured and, therefore, managers and peers may not use the same process to complete the same task; bad habits may be passed on; demonstration may be flawed and the opportunities for practice and feedback not provided--all resulting in poorly trained employees.
(2) Self-directed learning is an approach to training that places responsibility for learning on the employee/learner, e.g., when the learning will take place and with whom.
The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at their own pace and to receive feedback about their learning; it requires fewer training staff; reduces the costs of facilities and travel; it allows for constant access to training materials; and makes multiple-site training more realistic.
The potential disadvantages of self-directed learning include the responsibility it places on trainees, requiring them to be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own. This may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development costs in terms of time and money.
(3) Apprenticeship is a work-study type training method involving both on-the-job training and classroom and typically sponsored either by the company or by the union.
Advantages of apprenticeships include the fact that learners are paid while they learn, with wages typically increasing as their skills do; the effective combination of learning principles in the classroom and having the opportunity to practice what they’ve learned on the job; and that they typically result in full-time employment for trainees.
The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the historically restricted access to apprenticeship programs for women and minorities; the lack of guarantee that employment will follow completion of the program; and the somewhat narrow skill focus of current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade).
(4) A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation; with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.
Advantages of simulation include allowing trainees to learn production and process skills first hand without being engaged in the actual flow of production and without the fear of making a mistake in the actual work environment; and allowing for the observation and evaluation of trainees’ performance followed by feedback.
Disadvantages: Simulators need to have high fidelity to the work situation, i.e., they need to have identical elements to those on the job; they are expensive to develop and require continuous maintenance and updating.
(5) A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicating the appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done differently.
Advantages: The cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers and many other professionals; they help trainees to take risks given uncertain outcomes; and they require high trainee participation.
Disadvantages: Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation.
(6) Business games require trainee to actively gather information, analyze the information, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. The games should reflect all aspects of management practice, including labor relations, marketing, and finance.
Advantages of business games in the participativeness of the method; and the extent to which it mirrors actual managerial tasks.
Disadvantages include the time-intensive development that may be required; and the fact that the competition of the game itself may overshadow learning objectives
(7) Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees to act out characters and based on situations with which they have been provided.
Advantages: Role play differs from simulation in that role plays provide limited information regarding the situation, which simulation is more detailed. Further, role play focuses on “soft skills” or interpersonal skills while simulation typically focuses on “hard skills” or technical skills. Simulation requires procedural responses on the part of the trainee; role play requires mental and emotional reactions to other trainees.
Disadvantages: To be effective, it is critical that role plays be preceded by an explanation of the purpose of the activity; clear instructions need to be given; monitoring and feedback from the facilitator are needed; and debriefing, or helping trainees to understand the experience, is critical.
(8) Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for the trainees to attempt to replicate through practice.
Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.
3. Group-building methods
Group Building Methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. They involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.
(1) Adventure learning, also known as outdoor training or wilderness training, is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, and problem solving and conflict management skills, through structured outdoor (or “mock outdoor”) activities.
Advantages of adventure learning include allowing trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a situation not governed by formal business rules; that trainees share a strong emotional experience which may open them to change; that the exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and behaviors; and the exercises can be highly self-enlightening, invigorating and self-esteem enhancing.
Disadvantages include the highly physically demanding and risky nature of many adventure learning activities; the company’s risk for negligence claims due to personal injury, emotional distress or invasion of privacy; the high cost of such activities; and the lack of evidence that transfer of what is learned occurs.
(2) Team training involves coordinating the performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors) of employees who work interdependently to achieve common goals
It typically involves multiple methods of delivery, such as lecture, video, role plays and simulations.
(3) Action learning involves providing teams or work groups (usually 6-30 employees) an actual problem to work on solving through an action plan for which they are held accountable to carry out.
Action learning, which may have similar objectives to team training, is widespread in Europe and is just starting to be used in the U.S.
It has not been formally evaluated, but action learning appears to be an effective means of learning and transfer of learning because of its realness.
4. Factors affecting the selection of training methods
Factors to consider in choosing training methods include: The intended learning outcomes; the learning environment needed; the issue of transferring learning; cost; and effectiveness under the given circumstances.
Table 7-10 illustrates several trends:
(1) There is considerable overlap in learning outcomes across the various training methods.
(2) Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation (passive) methods.
(3) The hands-on methods also tend to be the more expensive methods, however, and budgets are frequently tight. Thus, these issues have to be balanced.
The Future of Training and Development
1. Future trends that are likely to influence trainers and training departments
(1) Increased use of new technologies for training delivery
(2) Increased demand for training for virtual work arrangements.
(3) Increased emphasis on speed in design, focus in content, and use of multiple delivery methods.
(4) Increased emphasis on capturing and sharing intellectual capital.
(5) Increased use of true performance support.
(6) Inreased emphasis on performance analysis and learning for business enhancement.
(7) Increased use of training partnerships and outsourcing training.
(8) A change model perspective to training and development.
2. Impact of future trends on training delivery and administration
3. Strategic roles of the training department
that are likely to influence trainers and training departments
(1) Increased use of new technologies for training delivery
(2) Increased demand for training for virtual work arrangements.
(3) Increased emphasis on speed in design, focus in content, and use of multiple delivery methods.
(4) Increased emphasis on capturing and sharing intellectual capital.
(5) Increased use of true performance support.
(6) Inreased emphasis on performance analysis and learning for business enhancement.
(7) Increased use of training partnerships and outsourcing training.
(8) A change model perspective to training and development.
2. Impact of future trends on training delivery and administration
3. Strategic roles of the training department
1. Definition of training.
Training is a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees’ learning of job-related competencies, including knowledge, skills or behaviors that are critical for successful job performance.
2. Importance of training.
1. Economic cycles
2. Globalization
3. Increased value placed on intangible assets and human capital
4. Focus on link to business strategy
5. Changing demographics and diversity of the work force
6. Talent management
7. Customer service and quality emphasis
8. New technology
9. High-performance work systems
3. Competencies & positions of training professionals
Roles of training professionals
1. Learning Strategist determines how workplace learning can be best used to help meet the company’s business strategy.
2. Business Partner uses business and industry knowledge to crate training that improves performance.
3. Project Manager plans, obtains, and monitors the effective delivery of learning and performance solutions to support the business.
4. Professional Specialist designs, develops, delivers, and evaluates learning and performance solutions.
Interpersonal Skills
Business/Management Skills
Personal Skills
1. Building trust
2. Communicating effectively
3. Influencing stakeholders
4. Leveraging diversity
5. Networking and Partnering
1. Analyzing needs and Proposing solutions
2. Applying business acumen
3. Driving results
4. Planning and Implementing assignments
5. Thinking strategically
1. Demonstrating adaptability
2. Modeling personal development
4. Organizational characteristics which influence training
1. Roles of Employees and Managers
2. Top Management Support
3. Integration of business units
4. Global Presence
5. Business Conditions
6. Other Human Resource Management Practices
7. Extent of Unionization
8. Staff Involvement in Training and Development
5. Changing roles of training
6. Changing work roles which influence training
Strategy
Emphasis
Key issues
Training implications
Concentration
1. Increased market share
2. Reduced operating costs
3. Market niche created or maintained
1. Skill currency
2. Development of existing work force
1. Team building
2. Cross training
3. Specialized programs
Internal growth
1. Market development
2. Product development
3. Innovation
4. Joint ventures
1. Creation of new jobs
and tasks
2. Innovation
1. Cultural training
2. Technical competence in jobs
3. Manager training in feedback and communication
External growth
1. Horizontal integration
2. Vertical integration
3. Concentric diversification
1. Integration
2. Redundancy
3. Restructuring
1. Integration of training systems
2. Methods and procedures of combined firms
Disinvestment
1. Retrenchment
2. Turnaround
3. Divestiture
4. Liquidation
1. Efficiency
1. Leadership training
2. Job-search skills training
3. Outplacement assistance
7. Training needs in different stages
1. Concentration Strategy focuses on increasing market share, reducing costs, or creating and maintaining a market niche for products and services.
2. Internal Growth Strategy focuses on new market and product development, innovation, and joint ventures.
3. External Growth Strategy emphasizes acquiring vendors and suppliers or buying businesses that allow the company to expand into new markets.
4. Disinvestment Strategy emphasizes liquidation and divestiture of business.
Needs Assessment
1. Definition of needs assessment
Needs assessment refers to the process used to determine whether training is necessary.
Organizational Analysis
1. Strategic Direction
2. Support of Managers, Peers and Employees for Training Activities
3. Training Resources
Do We Want To Devote Time
and Money For Training?
Person Characteristics
Input
Output
Consequences
Feedback
Task Analysis or Develop
a Competency Model
Work Activity (Task)
KSAs
Working Conditions
2. The Needs Assessment Process
3. Methods used in needs assessment
Observation
Questionnaires
Interviews
Focus Groups
Documentation
Online Technology (Software)
Benchmarking
4. Participation in needs assessment
Upper-level managers
Mid-level managers
Trainers
Organizational analysis
Is training important to achieve our business objects? How does training support our business strategy?
What are the threats to our talent base?
Do I want to spend money on training? How much?
How will training and development help meet my business goal?
Are we retaining top talent?
Do I have the budget to buy training services?
Will managers support training?
Person analysis
What functions or business units need training?
What do employees need to do to accomplish our business objectives?
Who should be trained?
Managers? Professionals?
Core employees?
How will I identify which employees need training?
Task analysis
Dose the company have people with the knowledge, skills, and abilities or competencies needs to compete in the marketplace?
For what jobs can training make the biggest difference in product quality or customer service?
For what tasks should employees be trained? What knowledge, skills, ability, or other characteristics are necessary
5. Competency Model definition and process
A competency model identifies the competencies necessary for each job as well as the knolwedge, skills, behavior, and personality characteristics underlying each competency.
Identify jobs,
Positions,
or Job Families
Conduct Interviews and
Focus Groups with Top Performers
Develop competencies and a Competency Model
Validate
and Review
the Model
Conduct Business
and
Strategy Analysis
Learning: Theories & Program Design
1. 5 types of learning outcome
Type of learning outcome
Description of capability
Example
Verbal Information
State, tell, or describe previously stored information
State three reasons for following company safety procedures
Intellectual Skills
Apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve problems and generate products
Design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements
Motor Skills
Execute a physical action with precision and timing
Shoot a gun and consistently hit a small moving target
Attitudes
Choose a personal course of action
Choose to respond to all incoming mail within 24 hours
Cognitive Strategies
Manage one’s own thinking and learning processes
Selectively use three different strategies to diagnose engine malfunctions
2. Learning theories and their implications for instructional design
Reinforcement Theory
1. From a training perspective, reinforcement theory suggests that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive (and negative). Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners’ acquiring KSAs
2. E.g Behavior modification
Social Learning Theory
1. According to social learning theory, learning is influenced by a person’s self-efficacy, which is one determinant of readiness to learn.
2. Social learning theory is the primary basis for behavior modeling training and has influenced the development of multimedia training programs.
Goal setting Theories
1. Goal setting theory influences training methods to be considered.
2. Goal setting theory also is used in training program design because it suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives.
Goal orientation Theories
1. Goal orientation theory is believed to affect the amount of effort a trainee will expend in learning (motivation to learn).
2. Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning in comparison to learners with a performance orientation.
Need Theories
1. Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should identify trainees’ needs and communicate how training program content relates to fulfilling these needs.
2. Another implications of need theory relates to providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend
Expectancy Theory
1. Expectancy theory suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe they can learn the content of the program; learning is linked to outcomes; and employees value these outcomes.
Adult Learning Theory
1. Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs because the audience for many such programs tends to be adults, most of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal education setting.
2. Implications of Adult learning theory for training as following: self-concept, experience, readiness, time perspective, orientation to learning.
Information Processing Theory
1. Besides emphasizing the internal processes needed to capture, store, retrieve, and respond to message, the information processing model highlights how external events influence learning.
3. Adult Learning Theory
Adult Learning Theory was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn.
Pedagogy: the art and science of teaching children. It gives the instructor major responsibility for making decisions about learning content, method, and evaluation.
Andragogy: the theory of adult learning. (Malcolm Knowles)
Design Issue
Implications
Self – concept
Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction
Experience
Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications
Readiness
Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies
Time perspective
Immediate application of content
Orientation to learning
Problem – centered instead of subject – centered
4. The Learning Process
Processes of learning
External instructional events
Forms of instruction
Expectancy
Informing the learner of the lesson objective
Demonstrate the expected performance
Perception
Presenting stimuli with distinctive features
Use formatting and figures in text to emphasize features
Working storage
Limiting the amount to be learned
Chunk lengthier material
Semantic encoding
Providing learning guidance
Provide verbal links to a larger meaningful context
Long-term storage
Elaborating the amount to be learned
Provide a variety of context and situations during practice
Retrieval
Providing cues that are used in recall
Suggest cues that elicit the recall of material
Generalizing
Enhance retention and learning transfer
Provide verbal links to additional complexes of information
Gratifying
Providing feedback about performance correctness
Provide feedback on degree of accuracy and timing of performance
5. Impact of internal and external conditions on learning
Internal conditions refer to processes within the learner that must be present for learning to occur. These processes include hwo information is registered, stored in memory, and recalled.
External conditions refer to processes in the learning environment that facilitate learning. These condiitons include the physical learning environment as well as opportunities to practice ad receive feedback and reinforcement.
6. Considerations in designing effective training
Selecting and Preparing the Training Site
Choosing Trainers
Making the training Site and Instruction Conductive to Learning
Program Design
Transfer of Training
1. Definition of transfer of training
Transfer of training refers to trainees’ effectively and continually applying what they learned in training (knowledge, skills, behaviors, cognitive strategies) to their jobs.
2. Work environment characteristics which influence the transfer of training
Climate for Transfer
Manager Support
Peer Support
Opportunity to Use Learned Capabilities
Technological Support
3. Implication of cognitive theory on the transfer of training
Cognitive theory of transfer refers to the likelihood of transfer depends on the trainees’ ability to retrieve learned capabilities.
It suggests that the likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learnd capability.
4. Technologies which can be used to support the transfer of training
Electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) are computer applications that can provide, as requested, skills training, information access, and expert advice.
5. Definition and key features of a learning organization
A learning organization is a company that has an enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change.
Key features of a learning organization
Supportive learning Environment
Learning Processes and Practices
Managers Reinforce Learning
Thoughtful review of the company’s process is encouraged
Knowledge creation, dissemination, sharing, and application are practiced
Learning is rewarded, promoted, and supported
Training Evaluation
1. Definition of evaluation
Training Evaluation refers to the process of collecting the outcomes needed to determine whether training is effective.
2. Reasons for evaluating training
1. To identify the program’s strengths and weaknesses.
2. To assess whether the content, organization, and administration of the program contribute to learning and the use of training content on the job.
3. To identify which trainees benefit most or least from the program.
4. To assist in marketing programs through the collection of information from participants about whether they would recommend the program to others, why they attended the program, and their level of satisfaction with the program.
5. To determine the financial benefits and costs of the program.
6. To compare the costs and benefits of training versus nontraining investments.
7. To compare the costs and benefits of different training programs to choose the best program.
3. The evaluation process
1. Conduct a needs analysis
2. Develop Measurable Learning Outcomes and Analyze Transfer of Training
3. Develop Outcome Measures
4. Choose an Evaluation Strategy
5. Plan and Execute the Evaluation
PS.
1. The first step is to conduct a needs analysis. It helps identify what knowledge, skills, behavior, or other learned capabilities are needed. It also helps identify where the training is expected to have an impact. It helps focus the evaluation by identify the purpose of the program, the resources needed (human, financial, company), and the outcomes
2. The second step is to develop measurable learning objectives and analyze transfer of training. This step is to identify specific, measurable training objectives to guide the program. Analysis of the work environment to determine transfer of training can be useful for determing how training content will be used on the job.
3. The third step is to develop outcome measures. Based on the learning objectives and analysis of transfer of training, outcome measures are designed to assess the extent to which learning and transfer have occurred.
4. The fourth step is to choose an evaluation strategy. This step is to determine an evaluation strategy.
Factors such as expertise, how quickly the information is needed, change potential, and the organizational culture should be considered in choosing a design.
5. The final step is to plan an execute the evaluation. Planning and executing the evalution involves previewing the program (formative evalution) as well as collecting training outcomes according to the evalution design.
4. Outcome used in evaluating training programs
1. Reaction Outcomes
2. Learning or Cognitive Outcomes
3. Behavior and Skill-based Outcomes
4. Affective Outcomes
5. Results Outcomes
6. Return on Investment
5. Different evaluation designs – strategies and weaknesses
Types of evaluation designs vary as to whether they include a pretest and posttest, a control or comparison group and randomization. The chapter provides an example of each design.
1. The posttest only design involves collecting only posttraining outcome measures. It would be strengthened by the use of a control group, which would help to rule out alternative explanations for changes in performance.
2. The pretest/posttest design involves collecting both pretraining and posttraining outcome measures to determine whether a change has occurred, but without a control group which helps to rule out alternative explanations for any change that does occur.
3. The pretest/posttest with comparison group design includes pretraining and posttraining outcome measurements as well as a comparison group in addition to the group that receives training. If the posttraining improvement is greater for the group that receives training, as we would expect, this provides evidence that training was responsible for the change.
4. The time series design involves collecting outcome measurements at periodic intervals pre- and posttraining. A comparison group may also be used. Time series allows for an analysis of outcomes, e.g., accident rates, productivity, etc., over time to observe any changes that occur (see Table 6.9, p. 215). The strength of this design can be improved by using reversal, which refers to a time period in which participants no longer receive the training intervention.
5. The Solomon Four-Group design combines the pretest/posttest comparison group design and the posttest-only control group design. It involves the use of four groups: a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured both pre- and posttraining and a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured only after training. This design provides the most controls for internal and external validity, but is also the most difficult to employ.
6. Determining the Return on Investment
1. Cost-benefit analysis of training is the process of determining the net economic benefits of training using accounting methods. Training cost information is important for several reasons:
(1) To understand total expenditures for training, including direct and indirect costs. .
(2) To compare the costs of alternative training programs.
(3) To evaluate the proportion of the training budget spent on the development of training, administrative costs, and evaluation as well as how much is spent on various types of employees e.g., exempt versus nonexempt.
(4) To control costs.
2. Determining costs
(1) The resource requirements model compares equipment, facilities, personnel, and materials costs across different stages of the training process (needs assessment, development, training design, implementation, and evaluation).
(2) There are seven categories of cost sources: costs related to program development or purchase; instructional materials; equipment and hardware; facilities; travel and lodging; and salary of the trainer and support staff along with the cost of either lost productivity or replacement workers while trainees are away from their jobs for the training.
3. Determining benefits can be done via a number of methods, including:
(1) Technical, practitioner and academic literature summarizes benefits of training programs.
(2) Pilot training programs assess the benefits from a small group of trainees before a company commits more resources.
(3) Observing successful job performers can help to determine what successful job performers do differently than unsuccessful performers.
(4) Asking trainees and their managers to provide estimates of training benefits.
Traditional training methods
Presentation Methods
Hands-On Methods
Group Building Methods
1 Lecture
2 Audiovisual Techniques
1. On-the-Job Training (OJT)
-self-directed learning
-apprenticeship
2. Simulations
3. Case Studies
4. Business Games
5. Role Plays
6. Behavior Modeling
1 Adventure Learning
2 Team Training
- cross training
- coordination training
- team leader training
3 Action Learning
- Six Sigma
- black belt training
1. Presentation methods
Presentation methods are those means of training delivery in which trainees are the passive recipients of information, such as facts or information about processes or problem solving methods.
There are two types of presentation methods, lecture and audiovisual instruction.
2. Hands-on methods
Hands-On Methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process, including on-the-job training (OJAT), self-directed learning, apprenticeship, simulation, case study, business games, role plays, and behavior modeling.
(1) On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors.
Advantages: OJT, which takes a number of forms including apprenticeships and self-directed learning, requires less time or money investment; it utilizes expertise among peers and managers; and can be effective for cross-training employees within a department or team.
The disadvantages of OJT include that it is typically unstructured and, therefore, managers and peers may not use the same process to complete the same task; bad habits may be passed on; demonstration may be flawed and the opportunities for practice and feedback not provided--all resulting in poorly trained employees.
(2) Self-directed learning is an approach to training that places responsibility for learning on the employee/learner, e.g., when the learning will take place and with whom.
The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at their own pace and to receive feedback about their learning; it requires fewer training staff; reduces the costs of facilities and travel; it allows for constant access to training materials; and makes multiple-site training more realistic.
The potential disadvantages of self-directed learning include the responsibility it places on trainees, requiring them to be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own. This may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development costs in terms of time and money.
(3) Apprenticeship is a work-study type training method involving both on-the-job training and classroom and typically sponsored either by the company or by the union.
Advantages of apprenticeships include the fact that learners are paid while they learn, with wages typically increasing as their skills do; the effective combination of learning principles in the classroom and having the opportunity to practice what they’ve learned on the job; and that they typically result in full-time employment for trainees.
The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the historically restricted access to apprenticeship programs for women and minorities; the lack of guarantee that employment will follow completion of the program; and the somewhat narrow skill focus of current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade).
(4) A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation; with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.
Advantages of simulation include allowing trainees to learn production and process skills first hand without being engaged in the actual flow of production and without the fear of making a mistake in the actual work environment; and allowing for the observation and evaluation of trainees’ performance followed by feedback.
Disadvantages: Simulators need to have high fidelity to the work situation, i.e., they need to have identical elements to those on the job; they are expensive to develop and require continuous maintenance and updating.
(5) A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicating the appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done differently.
Advantages: The cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers and many other professionals; they help trainees to take risks given uncertain outcomes; and they require high trainee participation.
Disadvantages: Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation.
(6) Business games require trainee to actively gather information, analyze the information, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. The games should reflect all aspects of management practice, including labor relations, marketing, and finance.
Advantages of business games in the participativeness of the method; and the extent to which it mirrors actual managerial tasks.
Disadvantages include the time-intensive development that may be required; and the fact that the competition of the game itself may overshadow learning objectives
(7) Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees to act out characters and based on situations with which they have been provided.
Advantages: Role play differs from simulation in that role plays provide limited information regarding the situation, which simulation is more detailed. Further, role play focuses on “soft skills” or interpersonal skills while simulation typically focuses on “hard skills” or technical skills. Simulation requires procedural responses on the part of the trainee; role play requires mental and emotional reactions to other trainees.
Disadvantages: To be effective, it is critical that role plays be preceded by an explanation of the purpose of the activity; clear instructions need to be given; monitoring and feedback from the facilitator are needed; and debriefing, or helping trainees to understand the experience, is critical.
(8) Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for the trainees to attempt to replicate through practice.
Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.
3. Group-building methods
Group Building Methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. They involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.
(1) Adventure learning, also known as outdoor training or wilderness training, is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, and problem solving and conflict management skills, through structured outdoor (or “mock outdoor”) activities.
Advantages of adventure learning include allowing trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a situation not governed by formal business rules; that trainees share a strong emotional experience which may open them to change; that the exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and behaviors; and the exercises can be highly self-enlightening, invigorating and self-esteem enhancing.
Disadvantages include the highly physically demanding and risky nature of many adventure learning activities; the company’s risk for negligence claims due to personal injury, emotional distress or invasion of privacy; the high cost of such activities; and the lack of evidence that transfer of what is learned occurs.
(2) Team training involves coordinating the performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors) of employees who work interdependently to achieve common goals
It typically involves multiple methods of delivery, such as lecture, video, role plays and simulations.
(3) Action learning involves providing teams or work groups (usually 6-30 employees) an actual problem to work on solving through an action plan for which they are held accountable to carry out.
Action learning, which may have similar objectives to team training, is widespread in Europe and is just starting to be used in the U.S.
It has not been formally evaluated, but action learning appears to be an effective means of learning and transfer of learning because of its realness.
4. Factors affecting the selection of training methods
Factors to consider in choosing training methods include: The intended learning outcomes; the learning environment needed; the issue of transferring learning; cost; and effectiveness under the given circumstances.
Table 7-10 illustrates several trends:
(1) There is considerable overlap in learning outcomes across the various training methods.
(2) Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation (passive) methods.
(3) The hands-on methods also tend to be the more expensive methods, however, and budgets are frequently tight. Thus, these issues have to be balanced.
The Future of Training and Development
1. Future
Introduction to Employee T & D
1. Definition of training.
Training is a planned effort by a company to facilitate employees’ learning of job-related competencies, including knowledge, skills or behaviors that are critical for successful job performance.
2. Importance of training.
1. Economic cycles
2. Globalization
3. Increased value placed on intangible assets and human capital
4. Focus on link to business strategy
5. Changing demographics and diversity of the work force
6. Talent management
7. Customer service and quality emphasis
8. New technology
9. High-performance work systems
3. Competencies & positions of training professionals
Roles of training professionals
1. Learning Strategist determines how workplace learning can be best used to help meet the company’s business strategy.
2. Business Partner uses business and industry knowledge to crate training that improves performance.
3. Project Manager plans, obtains, and monitors the effective delivery of learning and performance solutions to support the business.
4. Professional Specialist designs, develops, delivers, and evaluates learning and performance solutions.
Interpersonal Skills
Business/Management Skills
Personal Skills
1. Building trust
2. Communicating effectively
3. Influencing stakeholders
4. Leveraging diversity
5. Networking and Partnering
1. Analyzing needs and Proposing solutions
2. Applying business acumen
3. Driving results
4. Planning and Implementing assignments
5. Thinking strategically
1. Demonstrating adaptability
2. Modeling personal development
4. Organizational characteristics which influence training
1. Roles of Employees and Managers
2. Top Management Support
3. Integration of business units
4. Global Presence
5. Business Conditions
6. Other Human Resource Management Practices
7. Extent of Unionization
8. Staff Involvement in Training and Development
5. Changing roles of training
6. Changing work roles which influence training
Strategy
Emphasis
Key issues
Training implications
Concentration
1. Increased market share
2. Reduced operating costs
3. Market niche created or maintained
1. Skill currency
2. Development of existing work force
1. Team building
2. Cross training
3. Specialized programs
Internal growth
1. Market development
2. Product development
3. Innovation
4. Joint ventures
1. Creation of new jobs
and tasks
2. Innovation
1. Cultural training
2. Technical competence in jobs
3. Manager training in feedback and communication
External growth
1. Horizontal integration
2. Vertical integration
3. Concentric diversification
1. Integration
2. Redundancy
3. Restructuring
1. Integration of training systems
2. Methods and procedures of combined firms
Disinvestment
1. Retrenchment
2. Turnaround
3. Divestiture
4. Liquidation
1. Efficiency
1. Leadership training
2. Job-search skills training
3. Outplacement assistance
7. Training needs in different stages
1. Concentration Strategy focuses on increasing market share, reducing costs, or creating and maintaining a market niche for products and services.
2. Internal Growth Strategy focuses on new market and product development, innovation, and joint ventures.
3. External Growth Strategy emphasizes acquiring vendors and suppliers or buying businesses that allow the company to expand into new markets.
4. Disinvestment Strategy emphasizes liquidation and divestiture of business.
Needs Assessment
1. Definition of needs assessment
Needs assessment refers to the process used to determine whether training is necessary.
Organizational Analysis
1. Strategic Direction
2. Support of Managers, Peers and Employees for Training Activities
3. Training Resources
Do We Want To Devote Time
and Money For Training?
Person Characteristics
Input
Output
Consequences
Feedback
Task Analysis or Develop
a Competency Model
Work Activity (Task)
KSAs
Working Conditions
2. The Needs Assessment Process
3. Methods used in needs assessment
Observation
Questionnaires
Interviews
Focus Groups
Documentation
Online Technology (Software)
Benchmarking
4. Participation in needs assessment
Upper-level managers
Mid-level managers
Trainers
Organizational analysis
Is training important to achieve our business objects? How does training support our business strategy?
What are the threats to our talent base?
Do I want to spend money on training? How much?
How will training and development help meet my business goal?
Are we retaining top talent?
Do I have the budget to buy training services?
Will managers support training?
Person analysis
What functions or business units need training?
What do employees need to do to accomplish our business objectives?
Who should be trained?
Managers? Professionals?
Core employees?
How will I identify which employees need training?
Task analysis
Dose the company have people with the knowledge, skills, and abilities or competencies needs to compete in the marketplace?
For what jobs can training make the biggest difference in product quality or customer service?
For what tasks should employees be trained? What knowledge, skills, ability, or other characteristics are necessary
5. Competency Model definition and process
A competency model identifies the competencies necessary for each job as well as the knolwedge, skills, behavior, and personality characteristics underlying each competency.
Identify jobs,
Positions,
or Job Families
Conduct Interviews and
Focus Groups with Top Performers
Develop competencies and a Competency Model
Validate
and Review
the Model
Conduct Business
and
Strategy Analysis
Learning: Theories & Program Design
1. 5 types of learning outcome
Type of learning outcome
Description of capability
Example
Verbal Information
State, tell, or describe previously stored information
State three reasons for following company safety procedures
Intellectual Skills
Apply generalizable concepts and rules to solve problems and generate products
Design and code a computer program that meets customer requirements
Motor Skills
Execute a physical action with precision and timing
Shoot a gun and consistently hit a small moving target
Attitudes
Choose a personal course of action
Choose to respond to all incoming mail within 24 hours
Cognitive Strategies
Manage one’s own thinking and learning processes
Selectively use three different strategies to diagnose engine malfunctions
2. Learning theories and their implications for instructional design
Reinforcement Theory
1. From a training perspective, reinforcement theory suggests that for learners to acquire knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner finds most positive (and negative). Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners’ acquiring KSAs
2. E.g Behavior modification
Social Learning Theory
1. According to social learning theory, learning is influenced by a person’s self-efficacy, which is one determinant of readiness to learn.
2. Social learning theory is the primary basis for behavior modeling training and has influenced the development of multimedia training programs.
Goal setting Theories
1. Goal setting theory influences training methods to be considered.
2. Goal setting theory also is used in training program design because it suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives.
Goal orientation Theories
1. Goal orientation theory is believed to affect the amount of effort a trainee will expend in learning (motivation to learn).
2. Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning in comparison to learners with a performance orientation.
Need Theories
1. Need theories suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should identify trainees’ needs and communicate how training program content relates to fulfilling these needs.
2. Another implications of need theory relates to providing employees with a choice of training programs to attend
Expectancy Theory
1. Expectancy theory suggests that learning is most likely to occur when employees believe they can learn the content of the program; learning is linked to outcomes; and employees value these outcomes.
Adult Learning Theory
1. Adult learning theory is especially important to consider in developing training programs because the audience for many such programs tends to be adults, most of whom have not spent a majority of their time in a formal education setting.
2. Implications of Adult learning theory for training as following: self-concept, experience, readiness, time perspective, orientation to learning.
Information Processing Theory
1. Besides emphasizing the internal processes needed to capture, store, retrieve, and respond to message, the information processing model highlights how external events influence learning.
3. Adult Learning Theory
Adult Learning Theory was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn.
Pedagogy: the art and science of teaching children. It gives the instructor major responsibility for making decisions about learning content, method, and evaluation.
Andragogy: the theory of adult learning. (Malcolm Knowles)
Design Issue
Implications
Self – concept
Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction
Experience
Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications
Readiness
Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies
Time perspective
Immediate application of content
Orientation to learning
Problem – centered instead of subject – centered
4. The Learning Process
Processes of learning
External instructional events
Forms of instruction
Expectancy
Informing the learner of the lesson objective
Demonstrate the expected performance
Perception
Presenting stimuli with distinctive features
Use formatting and figures in text to emphasize features
Working storage
Limiting the amount to be learned
Chunk lengthier material
Semantic encoding
Providing learning guidance
Provide verbal links to a larger meaningful context
Long-term storage
Elaborating the amount to be learned
Provide a variety of context and situations during practice
Retrieval
Providing cues that are used in recall
Suggest cues that elicit the recall of material
Generalizing
Enhance retention and learning transfer
Provide verbal links to additional complexes of information
Gratifying
Providing feedback about performance correctness
Provide feedback on degree of accuracy and timing of performance
5. Impact of internal and external conditions on learning
Internal conditions refer to processes within the learner that must be present for learning to occur. These processes include hwo information is registered, stored in memory, and recalled.
External conditions refer to processes in the learning environment that facilitate learning. These condiitons include the physical learning environment as well as opportunities to practice ad receive feedback and reinforcement.
6. Considerations in designing effective training
Selecting and Preparing the Training Site
Choosing Trainers
Making the training Site and Instruction Conductive to Learning
Program Design
Transfer of Training
1. Definition of transfer of training
Transfer of training refers to trainees’ effectively and continually applying what they learned in training (knowledge, skills, behaviors, cognitive strategies) to their jobs.
2. Work environment characteristics which influence the transfer of training
Climate for Transfer
Manager Support
Peer Support
Opportunity to Use Learned Capabilities
Technological Support
3. Implication of cognitive theory on the transfer of training
Cognitive theory of transfer refers to the likelihood of transfer depends on the trainees’ ability to retrieve learned capabilities.
It suggests that the likelihood of transfer is increased by providing trainees with meaningful material that enhances the chances that they will link what they encounter in the work environment to the learnd capability.
4. Technologies which can be used to support the transfer of training
Electronic performance support systems (EPSSs) are computer applications that can provide, as requested, skills training, information access, and expert advice.
5. Definition and key features of a learning organization
A learning organization is a company that has an enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change.
Key features of a learning organization
Supportive learning Environment
Learning Processes and Practices
Managers Reinforce Learning
Thoughtful review of the company’s process is encouraged
Knowledge creation, dissemination, sharing, and application are practiced
Learning is rewarded, promoted, and supported
Training Evaluation
1. Definition of evaluation
Training Evaluation refers to the process of collecting the outcomes needed to determine whether training is effective.
2. Reasons for evaluating training
1. To identify the program’s strengths and weaknesses.
2. To assess whether the content, organization, and administration of the program contribute to learning and the use of training content on the job.
3. To identify which trainees benefit most or least from the program.
4. To assist in marketing programs through the collection of information from participants about whether they would recommend the program to others, why they attended the program, and their level of satisfaction with the program.
5. To determine the financial benefits and costs of the program.
6. To compare the costs and benefits of training versus nontraining investments.
7. To compare the costs and benefits of different training programs to choose the best program.
3. The evaluation process
1. Conduct a needs analysis
2. Develop Measurable Learning Outcomes and Analyze Transfer of Training
3. Develop Outcome Measures
4. Choose an Evaluation Strategy
5. Plan and Execute the Evaluation
PS.
1. The first step is to conduct a needs analysis. It helps identify what knowledge, skills, behavior, or other learned capabilities are needed. It also helps identify where the training is expected to have an impact. It helps focus the evaluation by identify the purpose of the program, the resources needed (human, financial, company), and the outcomes
2. The second step is to develop measurable learning objectives and analyze transfer of training. This step is to identify specific, measurable training objectives to guide the program. Analysis of the work environment to determine transfer of training can be useful for determing how training content will be used on the job.
3. The third step is to develop outcome measures. Based on the learning objectives and analysis of transfer of training, outcome measures are designed to assess the extent to which learning and transfer have occurred.
4. The fourth step is to choose an evaluation strategy. This step is to determine an evaluation strategy.
Factors such as expertise, how quickly the information is needed, change potential, and the organizational culture should be considered in choosing a design.
5. The final step is to plan an execute the evaluation. Planning and executing the evalution involves previewing the program (formative evalution) as well as collecting training outcomes according to the evalution design.
4. Outcome used in evaluating training programs
1. Reaction Outcomes
2. Learning or Cognitive Outcomes
3. Behavior and Skill-based Outcomes
4. Affective Outcomes
5. Results Outcomes
6. Return on Investment
5. Different evaluation designs – strategies and weaknesses
Types of evaluation designs vary as to whether they include a pretest and posttest, a control or comparison group and randomization. The chapter provides an example of each design.
1. The posttest only design involves collecting only posttraining outcome measures. It would be strengthened by the use of a control group, which would help to rule out alternative explanations for changes in performance.
2. The pretest/posttest design involves collecting both pretraining and posttraining outcome measures to determine whether a change has occurred, but without a control group which helps to rule out alternative explanations for any change that does occur.
3. The pretest/posttest with comparison group design includes pretraining and posttraining outcome measurements as well as a comparison group in addition to the group that receives training. If the posttraining improvement is greater for the group that receives training, as we would expect, this provides evidence that training was responsible for the change.
4. The time series design involves collecting outcome measurements at periodic intervals pre- and posttraining. A comparison group may also be used. Time series allows for an analysis of outcomes, e.g., accident rates, productivity, etc., over time to observe any changes that occur (see Table 6.9, p. 215). The strength of this design can be improved by using reversal, which refers to a time period in which participants no longer receive the training intervention.
5. The Solomon Four-Group design combines the pretest/posttest comparison group design and the posttest-only control group design. It involves the use of four groups: a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured both pre- and posttraining and a training group and comparison group for which outcomes are measured only after training. This design provides the most controls for internal and external validity, but is also the most difficult to employ.
6. Determining the Return on Investment
1. Cost-benefit analysis of training is the process of determining the net economic benefits of training using accounting methods. Training cost information is important for several reasons:
(1) To understand total expenditures for training, including direct and indirect costs. .
(2) To compare the costs of alternative training programs.
(3) To evaluate the proportion of the training budget spent on the development of training, administrative costs, and evaluation as well as how much is spent on various types of employees e.g., exempt versus nonexempt.
(4) To control costs.
2. Determining costs
(1) The resource requirements model compares equipment, facilities, personnel, and materials costs across different stages of the training process (needs assessment, development, training design, implementation, and evaluation).
(2) There are seven categories of cost sources: costs related to program development or purchase; instructional materials; equipment and hardware; facilities; travel and lodging; and salary of the trainer and support staff along with the cost of either lost productivity or replacement workers while trainees are away from their jobs for the training.
3. Determining benefits can be done via a number of methods, including:
(1) Technical, practitioner and academic literature summarizes benefits of training programs.
(2) Pilot training programs assess the benefits from a small group of trainees before a company commits more resources.
(3) Observing successful job performers can help to determine what successful job performers do differently than unsuccessful performers.
(4) Asking trainees and their managers to provide estimates of training benefits.
Traditional training methods
Presentation Methods
Hands-On Methods
Group Building Methods
1 Lecture
2 Audiovisual Techniques
1. On-the-Job Training (OJT)
-self-directed learning
-apprenticeship
2. Simulations
3. Case Studies
4. Business Games
5. Role Plays
6. Behavior Modeling
1 Adventure Learning
2 Team Training
- cross training
- coordination training
- team leader training
3 Action Learning
- Six Sigma
- black belt training
1. Presentation methods
Presentation methods are those means of training delivery in which trainees are the passive recipients of information, such as facts or information about processes or problem solving methods.
There are two types of presentation methods, lecture and audiovisual instruction.
2. Hands-on methods
Hands-On Methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning process, including on-the-job training (OJAT), self-directed learning, apprenticeship, simulation, case study, business games, role plays, and behavior modeling.
(1) On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors.
Advantages: OJT, which takes a number of forms including apprenticeships and self-directed learning, requires less time or money investment; it utilizes expertise among peers and managers; and can be effective for cross-training employees within a department or team.
The disadvantages of OJT include that it is typically unstructured and, therefore, managers and peers may not use the same process to complete the same task; bad habits may be passed on; demonstration may be flawed and the opportunities for practice and feedback not provided--all resulting in poorly trained employees.
(2) Self-directed learning is an approach to training that places responsibility for learning on the employee/learner, e.g., when the learning will take place and with whom.
The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at their own pace and to receive feedback about their learning; it requires fewer training staff; reduces the costs of facilities and travel; it allows for constant access to training materials; and makes multiple-site training more realistic.
The potential disadvantages of self-directed learning include the responsibility it places on trainees, requiring them to be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their own. This may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher development costs in terms of time and money.
(3) Apprenticeship is a work-study type training method involving both on-the-job training and classroom and typically sponsored either by the company or by the union.
Advantages of apprenticeships include the fact that learners are paid while they learn, with wages typically increasing as their skills do; the effective combination of learning principles in the classroom and having the opportunity to practice what they’ve learned on the job; and that they typically result in full-time employment for trainees.
The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the historically restricted access to apprenticeship programs for women and minorities; the lack of guarantee that employment will follow completion of the program; and the somewhat narrow skill focus of current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade).
(4) A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation; with trainees’ decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.
Advantages of simulation include allowing trainees to learn production and process skills first hand without being engaged in the actual flow of production and without the fear of making a mistake in the actual work environment; and allowing for the observation and evaluation of trainees’ performance followed by feedback.
Disadvantages: Simulators need to have high fidelity to the work situation, i.e., they need to have identical elements to those on the job; they are expensive to develop and require continuous maintenance and updating.
(5) A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken, indicating the appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done differently.
Advantages: The cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers and many other professionals; they help trainees to take risks given uncertain outcomes; and they require high trainee participation.
Disadvantages: Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually relate to the specific company or work situation.
(6) Business games require trainee to actively gather information, analyze the information, and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. The games should reflect all aspects of management practice, including labor relations, marketing, and finance.
Advantages of business games in the participativeness of the method; and the extent to which it mirrors actual managerial tasks.
Disadvantages include the time-intensive development that may be required; and the fact that the competition of the game itself may overshadow learning objectives
(7) Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees to act out characters and based on situations with which they have been provided.
Advantages: Role play differs from simulation in that role plays provide limited information regarding the situation, which simulation is more detailed. Further, role play focuses on “soft skills” or interpersonal skills while simulation typically focuses on “hard skills” or technical skills. Simulation requires procedural responses on the part of the trainee; role play requires mental and emotional reactions to other trainees.
Disadvantages: To be effective, it is critical that role plays be preceded by an explanation of the purpose of the activity; clear instructions need to be given; monitoring and feedback from the facilitator are needed; and debriefing, or helping trainees to understand the experience, is critical.
(8) Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for the trainees to attempt to replicate through practice.
Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.
3. Group-building methods
Group Building Methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness. They involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses of themselves and their teammates.
(1) Adventure learning, also known as outdoor training or wilderness training, is a training delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, and problem solving and conflict management skills, through structured outdoor (or “mock outdoor”) activities.
Advantages of adventure learning include allowing trainees to interact and build relationships with coworkers in a situation not governed by formal business rules; that trainees share a strong emotional experience which may open them to change; that the exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and behaviors; and the exercises can be highly self-enlightening, invigorating and self-esteem enhancing.
Disadvantages include the highly physically demanding and risky nature of many adventure learning activities; the company’s risk for negligence claims due to personal injury, emotional distress or invasion of privacy; the high cost of such activities; and the lack of evidence that transfer of what is learned occurs.
(2) Team training involves coordinating the performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors) of employees who work interdependently to achieve common goals
It typically involves multiple methods of delivery, such as lecture, video, role plays and simulations.
(3) Action learning involves providing teams or work groups (usually 6-30 employees) an actual problem to work on solving through an action plan for which they are held accountable to carry out.
Action learning, which may have similar objectives to team training, is widespread in Europe and is just starting to be used in the U.S.
It has not been formally evaluated, but action learning appears to be an effective means of learning and transfer of learning because of its realness.
4. Factors affecting the selection of training methods
Factors to consider in choosing training methods include: The intended learning outcomes; the learning environment needed; the issue of transferring learning; cost; and effectiveness under the given circumstances.
Table 7-10 illustrates several trends:
(1) There is considerable overlap in learning outcomes across the various training methods.
(2) Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer than the presentation (passive) methods.
(3) The hands-on methods also tend to be the more expensive methods, however, and budgets are frequently tight. Thus, these issues have to be balanced.
The Future of Training and Development
1. Future trends that are likely to influence trainers and training departments
(1) Increased use of new technologies for training delivery
(2) Increased demand for training for virtual work arrangements.
(3) Increased emphasis on speed in design, focus in content, and use of multiple delivery methods.
(4) Increased emphasis on capturing and sharing intellectual capital.
(5) Increased use of true performance support.
(6) Inreased emphasis on performance analysis and learning for business enhancement.
(7) Increased use of training partnerships and outsourcing training.
(8) A change model perspective to training and development.
2. Impact of future trends on training delivery and administration
3. Strategic roles of the training department
that are likely to influence trainers and training departments
(1) Increased use of new technologies for training delivery
(2) Increased demand for training for virtual work arrangements.
(3) Increased emphasis on speed in design, focus in content, and use of multiple delivery methods.
(4) Increased emphasis on capturing and sharing intellectual capital.
(5) Increased use of true performance support.
(6) Inreased emphasis on performance analysis and learning for business enhancement.
(7) Increased use of training partnerships and outsourcing training.
(8) A change model perspective to training and development.
2. Impact of future trends on training delivery and administration
3. Strategic roles of the training department
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