英语语言学笔记(2)

　　二、音系学

　　语言的声音媒介
　　什么是语音学
　　发音器官
　　音标……宽式和严式标音法
　　英语语音的分类
　　音系学和语音学
　　语音、音位、音位变体
　　音位对立、互补分部、最小对立
　　几条音系规则
　　超切分特征

　　Two major media of communication: speech and writing
　　The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。

　　Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.
　　Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学

　　Organs of speech 发音器官
　　The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:
　　The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat
　　The oral cavity口腔——the mouth
　　The nasal cavity 鼻腔——the nose
　　Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。

　　单词补充：　　01） velum: The soft palate. 软腭
　　02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块
　　03） larynx: n. 喉
　　04） vocal cord: 声带
　　05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官
　　06） the soft palate: 软腭
　　07） the hard palate: 硬腭
　　08） the teeth ridge: 齿龈
　　09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床
　　10） the teeth: 牙齿
　　11） the lips: 上下唇
　　12） blade of tongue: 舌面
　　13） back of tongue: 舌根
　　14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔
　　15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔
　　16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）
　　17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖
　　18） the upper front teeth: 上齿
　　19） the roof of the mouth: 上颚
　　20） the lower lip: 下唇

　　音标……宽式和严式标音法
　　International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）
　　The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（单元音&双元音）
　　The constants 辅音
　　Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）
　　用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。
　　Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.
　　但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。
　　在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。
　　Classification of English speech sounds

　　英语语音的分类
　　The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.
　　Classification of English constants
　　英语辅音分类
　　此主题相关图片如下：

　　Classification of English vowels
　　:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低
　　:the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度
　　:the shape of the lips园唇与否
　　:length of the vowels元音的长度

　　此主题相关图片如下：

　　Phonology 音系学
　　Phonology and phonetics

　　音系学和语音学
　　Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.
　　语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。
　　Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
　　音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。

　　Phone，phoneme and allophone
　　语音，音位，音位变体

　　Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.
　　语音是语音学研究的单位， 是一个个具体的声音。
　　Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.
　　音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念， 每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。
　　The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
　　音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现， 同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。
　　Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair

　　音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对
　　rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.
　　可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。
　　/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
　　When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. [pen] and [ben]
　　最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。

　　Some rules in phonology几条音系规则
　　Sequential rules 序列规则 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.
　　Assimilation rules 同化规则
　　Deletion rule 省略规则
　　Sign, design, there is no {g} sound
　　Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.
　　Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant.

　　Suprasegmental features—— stress, tone, intonation
　　超切分特征——重音， 声调，语调
　　the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features;
　　超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。