Becoming More Internationally-Minded: International Teacher Certification and Professional Development

Lesley Snowball

• THE CERTIFICATION PROCESS
• STANDARDS
• CONCLUSION
• ENTRY CITATION

With thousands of schools, tens of thousands of teachers and hundreds of thousands of students, international education is a rapidly growing sector, with growth stimulated by both necessity and ideology. As an increasing number of migrant workers move from country to country and an increasing number of parents purposefully choose a culturally and linguistically diverse education for their children, international education is undergoing a redefinition, from an exclusive system primarily for the children of transient professionals, into inclusive global education for both international and national systems.

As a direct result of the cultural and economic globalization and the associated mobility referred to throughout this Handbook, communities worldwide (and particularly major cities) are becoming increasingly diverse. As a typical example, in a recent census, Amsterdam's non-Dutch inhabitants became the majority when their numbers passed beyond the 50 per cent mark. Such statistics mean that international education can no longer be the domain of an elite minority within international schools. Further, cultural and linguistic complexity make it the reality for many national schools as well. This in turn increases the need for faculty with specialized knowledge about the international context of education and skill in developing relevant curriculum and pedagogy.

However, there is little reflection of this need in teacher training programmes throughout the world. As noted in Chapter 18 in this Handbook by Levy and in previous research by this author (Snowball 1997, 2002), most teachers are only prepared for their immediate domestic context. This chapter will outline the specific knowledge and skills required of ‘world-class’ faculty, presented as seven standards for International Teacher Certification (ITC) (Snowball 2004).

THE CERTIFICATION PROCESS

As illustrated by the model in Figure 21.1 (Snowball, K. and L. F, 2004), to receive the ITC a teacher would need to submit a portfolio of evidence demonstrating achievement of each standard, and would be supported in doing so by a foundation course, an experienced mentor and a personal development plan. Such a system would recognize teachers for their specialized knowledge, skills and experience; focus and synthesize professional development from diverse sources; offer recruiters greater assurance of teacher preparation; and provide a common definition of an effective international teacher.

STANDARDS

Each standard is presented below, along with a rationale that has been drawn from the literature and extensive personal research with educators world-wide.

Standard 1: International education in context

The teacher understands the international context of education, appreciating both the unique profile of each school and the diversity amongst education systems, as well as the roles played by major educational organizations, regionally and globally.

In practice, the international teacher:

1. contributes to the ideal of developing globally minded students
2. appreciates the rewards of working in culturally and linguistically diverse settings
3. contributes positively to meet the challenges raised by cultural and linguistic diversity
4. participates in social and educational projects within the local and global communities
5. is knowledgeable about educational systems and practices world-wide.

Rationale

International education can be said to include schools that are international by name and schools that are international by nature (and, of course, some that are both). Hayden and Thompson (1998:285) highlight ‘teachers as exemplars of international-mindedness’ as one of the core features of international education, ‘whether or not that be in an institution called an international school’.

Within the broader context of education, international schools represent one element of internationalism alongside the multiculturalism and multilingualism that are typical within many national schools, and the diversity within and amongst different countries' education systems. In ‘a world dominated by supranational production and trading forces, international cultural icons and common environmental problems on the one hand, and intensified and often painful expressions of local identity and regional singularity on the other’ (Steiner 1996: xiv), the international teacher, aiming to develop internationally-minded students, should be aware of internationalism in this broader context. As an educator, a teacher has a unique opportunity to extend students' knowledge and understanding beyond the immediate and the familiar, and to nurture a disposition for compassion and action globally.

Standard 2: Teaching in multilingual classrooms

The teacher values students' multilingual abilities and demonstrates understanding of the processes involved in language acquisition and development in the first and subsequent languages.

In practice, the international teacher:

1. encourages students to use their first language for personal, social and academic reasons
2. plans and implements differentiated learning experiences and assessment strategies appropriate to students' language profiles.

Rationale

Of the areas identified, language is, arguably, the most fundamental, because it is related to cognition, self-esteem, cultural identity and general development. In addition, language diversity within and amongst students is widespread in most education systems. Linguists estimate that the world's peoples speak 5,000-6,000 languages, with English understood and spoken, to some extent, by around one-third of humanity (O'Neil 2005). Of the 162 countries or territories in UNESCO's World Culture Report 2000 (UNESCO 2000), 36 (22 per cent) have two or more official languages, while only seven (4 per cent) are listed as having only a single language in daily use: for the majority of the world, multilingualism is a practical daily reality.

Clearly, skill in speaking more than one language may not always be a possible prerequisite for teaching multilingual students. Nonetheless, at a minimum, teachers should have a good understanding of how students acquire and develop language, and how they can best facilitate this complex process. Research on this topic abounds, and indeed many teacher training programmes do seem to make a gesture towards internationalism through the inclusion of some form of multilingual awareness component. However, most of these are offered only as electives, and relatively few teachers have an in-depth understanding of their own or other languages (especially of those outside their immediate language family), while even fewer appreciate the complex web of factors affecting multilingual learners or have adequate practical strategies to support them. The professional development of teachers world-wide would be enhanced by the theoretical knowledge of leading linguists such as Crystal (1997) and Krashen (1981,1982), who have extended our understanding of the functions and functioning of language; by the findings of researchers such as Cummins (1994) and Collier and Thomas (2002), who have consistently advocated support for mother-tongue maintenance; and by the practical strategies suggested by educators such as Sears (1998), who shows a genuine appreciation of the challenges faced by second-language learners.

Such enhanced understandings could, to some extent, guard against outdated practices that are still found in many schools, both international and national. For example, students and their parents are encouraged to stop using the mother-tongue in the belief that language is subtractive rather than additive. Article 5 of UNESCO's Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (UNESCO 2001) states that, ‘All persons have therefore the right to express themselves and to create and disseminate their work in the language of their choice, and particularly in their mother-tongue’, and Collier and Thomas (2002) provided conclusive evidence of the importance of mother-tongue support on long-term academic achievement. Worryingly, however, they also found evidence of widespread parental misunderstanding about the benefits of such language support, and further instances of this have been encountered world-wide -for example, during this author's extensive work with bilingual teachers in Peru, parental non-cooperation was reported as a major factor in the failure of bilingual programmes. The role of teachers in convincing and reassuring parents is critical, but is clearly contingent on the teachers themselves understanding the issues and implications.

Standard 3: Multiculturalism

The teacher employs strategies that facilitate the academic achievement of students from diverse cultural groups.

In practice, the international teacher:

1. demonstrates the use of several different approaches to integrate content about cultural groups into the curriculum
2. helps students understand that knowledge is constructed, and is influenced by the biases, frames of reference and perspectives of individuals, groups and disciplines
3. proactively employs strategies to develop positive attitudes and ensure equal status of different cultural groups.

Rationale

Cultural diversity is the norm for schools world-wide and can be considered a school's richest, most accessible resource. To facilitate best use of this resource, and optimize student achievement, teachers must be aware of cultural differences beyond the immediately visible surface aspects of the so-called 4Fs -fashion, festivals, flags and food. They need to be sensitive to the less visible aspects of culture, such as teaching and learning philosophies, communication styles, beliefs and values. These are illustrated clearly by Fennes and Hapgood's use of an iceberg model (1997). The iceberg analogy is well chosen, since it is through discovery of the ‘subsurface’ aspects that the real riches of a culture can be understood and enjoyed. It is equally true that to be unaware of, to ignore or misinterpret them, creates the danger of potential cultural collision. Barna (1998: 173) asks why, despite good intentions and potential mutual benefit, contact with other cultures is so often frustrating and fraught with misunderstanding, and she goes on to propose ‘six stumbling blocks’: assumption of similarities, language differences, nonverbal misrepresentations, preconceptions and stereotypes, tendency to evaluate and high anxiety caused by uncertainty.

In a culturally diverse school, teachers will interact with several different cultures each day. It is therefore essential that they are aware of the potential barriers to effective communication, and have a generic appreciation of the fundamental nature of cultural characteristics. Of particular importance is sensitivity to significant home-school differences for individual students. The optimal situation is for each student to develop and value his or her own cultural identity while being enriched by contact with the cultures of others. Carlos Cortes (1994: 22-35) refers to this process as acculturation (an additive process of adapting to mainstream culture) as opposed to assimilation (a subtractive process of adopting another culture in place of your own).

Encountering contrasting cultures can make us more aware of our own, and students experiencing home-school differences between values and practices can become confused, especially if the transition into the new culture has been sudden, such as that caused by a move to a new country. For example, students brought up in a culture where teachers are revered are more likely to have difficulty adjusting to a school emphasis on student initiative and questioning. In addition, families whose culture encourages comparison and competition with others might be less likely to understand students working at their own pace or in cooperative groups. Further, communities that regard student difficulties in school as shameful might be more likely to refuse offers of diagnosis and extra support. Such cultural dissonance may even arise from the seemingly simple question of the student's age - while many cultures calculate age from the date of birth, others use the date of conception. Having a teacher insist that you are one year younger can be very distressing for a student, and can create potential administrative chaos with class placements!

Standard 4: Student characteristics and learning

The teacher is familiar with international student characteristics, including stage theories of development, age-level characteristics and student variability in learning.

In practice, the international teacher:

1. provides learning opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners and align with their intellectual, social and personal development levels
2. demonstrates sensitivity to the multiple experiences of learners and addresses different learning and performance modes
3. makes appropriate provisions (in terms of time and circumstances for work, tasks assigned, communication and response modes) for individual students who have particular learning differences or needs.

Rationale

The need for teachers to have an in-depth understanding of student learning is fundamental. Even schools that are culturally and linguistically homogeneous will have students with a wide variety of individual characteristics, background experiences and learning styles, while in more heterogeneous schools, this diversity is amplified. Effective teachers in these settings must be able to recognize learning variability, and apply a broad, open-minded understanding of pedagogy that includes awareness of diverse theories of thinking and development. Further, they must be proactive in tailoring their teaching to optimize each student's academic and social growth.

This author's research into traits of effective teachers (Snowball 2004) showed that both parents and teachers themselves rated ‘pedagogical understanding (how students learn)’ and ‘differentiated teaching for diverse learning styles’ amongst the most desirable traits. The proliferation of brain research over the past two decades has dramatically impacted understanding of learning, and theories such as Gardner's Multiple Intelligences (1983), and approaches such as constructivism (Brooks and Brooks 1993), Socratic enquiry (Fisher 1998) and differentiation (Tomlinson 1999) are now commonly included in teacher preparation programmes. Yet such programmes vary greatly in the relative emphasis they place on what to teach (curriculum) and how to teach (pedagogy), and teachers still emerge with a detailed understanding of their subject area/s but little real understanding of how students develop and how learning works (Snowball 2004).

Arthur Steller, president of ASCD 1994-1995, identifies a significant aspect of the problem in his foreword to Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom (Armstrong 1994: v):

Translating theory into practical, accessible ideas as Armstrong does with MI, and others such as Brooks Fisher and Tomlinson do with constructivism, Socratic enquiry and differentiation, is a prerequisite for successful teacher implementation.

Standard 5: Transition

The teacher is sensitive to the difficulties transition can cause and, in addition to handling personal stresses effectively, is skilled in supporting students and parents.

In practice, the international teacher:

1. adapts easily to new situations
2. systematically uses strategies to facilitate new students becoming as effective as possible as soon as possible
3. offers additional support to new parents
4. facilitates students' onward transfer.

Rationale

There is significant evidence that world-wide mobility will increase. In the year 2000, for example, Germany reported 7 million foreign residents compared with 2.5 million in 1970, while world-wide the number of migrants (defined as persons outside their country of birth or citizenship for 12 months or more) increased from 85 million in 1975 to 154 million in 1990 and 175 million in 2000.

In addition to this international mobility, a parallel trend shows continuing decreases in job tenure, creating increasing intranational mobility within countries world-wide. The UK Office for National Statistics (Macauley 2003) reports that ‘In 1996 half of all employees had been working for the same firm for five years or less. This had fallen to four years by 2001’. The trend also appears stronger in younger age groups: ‘In 2001 51 per cent of those in the 18-24 age group were in the same job as 12 months ago, compared with 86 per cent for those aged 50 or over’. In countries as far apart as China and Peru, rural-urban migration is creating similar patterns (the average job tenure in Chinese rural-urban migrants was reported as 4.5 years, in contrast with 7.4 in the USA and 11.3 in Japan) (Knight and Yueh 2004).

In such a mobile world therefore, an understanding of transition and its effects is another essential aspect of being an effective teacher. Teachers must be prepared to deal with the transition issues mobility can create - for students, parents and themselves - which can range from minor settling-in adjustments to more serious problems. Transition can help students become confident in establishing relationships yet it can also prevent them from making lasting friendships; for parents it can result in a very relaxed attitude to education or in irrational anxiety directed towards the school; and for teachers themselves it can create a network of colleagues and friends around the world yet it can interfere significantly with both professional and personal life. Such negative and positive aspects of transition are poignantly illustrated by the personal accounts in Pollock and van Reken's Third Culture Kids: ‘each move offered something to look forward to while something had to be given up … some essential part of our lives was always someplace else … We learned to be happy and sad at the same time’ (Pollock and van Reken 2001: 60). The importance of ‘awareness’ as one of the most effective means of dealing with transition stress is emphasized in Bill Powell's article, ‘Orchids in the bathroom’ (2001), which powerfully conveys how even internationally mobile veterans can be swamped by waves of unexpected and disorientating ‘nostalgia’. An effective international teacher will deal with potential problems proactively, for example by helping to implement a transition programme that supports both students and parents, and by building aspects of transition awareness into the curriculum.

Standard 6: Internationalizing curricula

The teacher actively seeks to enrich both what and how they teach with multiple international perspectives, acting as a role model in developing internationally-minded students.

In practice, the international teacher:

1. is familiar with existing international curricula
2. is able to internationalize units of work
3. demands that students seek and consider multiple perspectives
4. critically assesses resources to avoid bias and stereotyping
5. utilizes the experience of students and parents to present authentic perspectives and opinions.

Rationale

This chapter began by declaring that international education includes schools that are international in name and schools that are international in nature - the same can be said of curricula. There are international curricula specifically designed for an international context, and internationalized curricula modified to promote an international orientation. While the former has tended to be used more in international schools and the latter in national schools, there is an increasing blurring of the lines, with many national schools adopting international curricula such as the International Baccalaureate programmes, and many international schools using modified national curricula. An international teacher should become familiar with a range of different programmes, in particular considering what makes them international. What is taught and how it is taught must be relevant to all students, moving beyond national knowledge and boundaries to take into account both local and global issues and perspectives, cultural and linguistic diversity and the concept of global citizenship. Internationalism must be infused across all subject areas, with all resources used, and most importantly, in the mindsets of teachers. It ‘is not an additional subject - it is an ethos’ (Young 2000: 2).

To be most effective, international perspectives should be explicitly stated. Examples include the internationalism practices presented in the IBO programme's evaluation standards (International Baccalaureate Organization 2005) and the internationalism objectives that run parallel to subject area objectives in the International Primary Curriculum (2001). However, in practice, it is often left to the individual teacher to implement modifications, largely dependent on the extent of his or her own international-mindedness, experience and access to appropriate resources. The result is that even schools that call themselves international and use an international curriculum may demonstrate a lack of meaningful international perspective throughout the programme.

Whether or not working within an international curricula framework, the ability to internationalize units of work is therefore a key skill for international teachers. It is essential that teachers critically assess resources to avoid bias and stereotyping, while nurturing in students the disposition to recognize and question such bias - the diversity of their classrooms is a valuable resource in itself, offering opportunities to share authentic perspectives and opinions from students' own experience and expertise. Whatever ages or subjects taught, teachers must encourage students to seek and consider multiple perspectives, compare and contrast familiar with unfamiliar, and investigate global issues with a problem-solving approach and an attitude of active altruism. And finally, by identifying and assessing the concepts, knowledge, skills and attitudes that typify internationally-minded students, teachers will have some measure of their success.

Standard 7: The reflective international teacher

The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his or her choices and actions on others (students, parents and other professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally.

In practice, the international teacher:

1. uses classroom observation, information about students and research as sources for evaluating the outcomes of teaching and learning and as a basis for experimenting with, reflecting on, and revising practice
2. seeks out professional literature, colleagues and other resources to support his or her own development as a learner and a teacher
3. draws upon colleagues within the school and other professional arenas world-wide as supports for reflection, problem-solving and new ideas, actively sharing experiences and seeking and giving feedback
4. regularly participates in professional development activities, including action research, to improve practice.

Rationale

Reflection and continuous improvement are key characteristics of any successful teacher, but for those working in diverse international settings there are additional dimensions. Beginning with the teacher's initial decision to work in an international school (whether in name or nature), reflection is a key element: choosing to teach in a different country or school system often involves a new process for finding the job and requires serious reflection on adaptability and compatibility. In addition, using a different curriculum and resources can make experienced teachers feel like novices again and requires resourceful reflection on previous practice. Further, working with colleagues and students from different backgrounds can bring beliefs and values into question and requires deep reflection on personal traits and professional skills.

Most international schools are independent with limited professional support systems, especially in an unfamiliar language environment. As a result, teachers have to be highly self-reliant in terms of professional development and career advancement. In this context, international teachers are often more actively reflective - for example, keeping professional portfolios, initiating action research projects, reading and writing for professional journals. It also seems that many international schools, being largely independent of overseeing authorities, do not have formalized teacher evaluation systems, which again require teachers to rely on their own reflection for assessment of their teaching.

In David Perkins's Smart Schools (1995: 222), teacher reflection is a major focus, with three main groups being identified:

The international teacher needs to be in Group Three - he or she must demonstrate desire to enhance his or her instructional repertoire and learn from colleagues, both locally and world-wide.

CONCLUSION

In both international and national systems around the world, schools and education authorities emphasize international ideals for their students. They use terminology such as ‘contributing responsibly in a global community’, ‘becoming an integral part of our diverse multicultural society’, and ‘education for international understanding’. Yet how can schools and governments hope to fulfil such missions when many of the teachers they hire have little preparation in the key elements of internationalism?

The Conference of Internationally-Minded Schools of 1949-69 (Hill 2001) attracted support from national as well as international schools, with the aim of furthering world peace and international understanding through education, and could be regarded as the first promoter of the concept of an international education certificate for teachers. With the ongoing trend for globalization, and the increasing need for international understanding, teacher certification is now seen as essential by governments and educators. It is clear that curricula should include peace studies and conflict resolution, interdependence and intercultural communication, human rights and social responsibility, world issues and problem-solving skills, with an overall aim of developing students who are not only internationally-minded but internationally hearted. If we accept that teachers are key factors in educational effectiveness then it follows that they need the specialized knowledge, skills and characteristics to nurture this in students. It is time to initiate a systematic approach to the preparation of teachers in key elements of internationalism, both by integration of this content into existing teacher training and through the development of new tailored programmes.

Entry Citation:

"Becoming More Internationally-Minded: International Teacher Certification and Professional Development." The SAGE Handbook of Research in International Education. 2007. SAGE Publications. 8 Oct. 2009. .

Chapter DOI: 10.4135/978-1-84860-786-6.n22