霏欧纳几级进化:2011高考实用英语语法笔记(三)

Chapter 13. 数词
一、概念：
数词分为基数词和序数词,表示数目多少的数词叫基数词,表示顺序的数词叫序数词。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、基数词
1)基数词一般可写成如345或three hundred and forty-five。
2)基数词一般是单数形式,但遇下列情况,常用复数：①与of 短语连用,表示概数,不能与具体数目连用,如scores of people指许多人；②在一些表示"一排"或"一组"的词组里。例如：They arrived in twos and threes.他们三三两两的到了。③表示"几十岁"。④表示"年代",用 in +the +数词复数。⑤在乘法运算的一种表示法里,如Three fives is(are)fifteen。
2、序数词
序数词的缩写形式：如first---1st,second---2nd,thirty-first---31st等。
3、数词的用法
1)倍数表示法
①主语+谓语+倍数(或分数)+ as + adj. + as。例如：I have three times as many as you.
②主语+谓语+倍数(分数)+ the size (amount,length…) of…。例如：The earth is 49 times the size of the moon.
③主语+谓语+倍数(分数)+ 形容词(副词)比较级+ than…。例如：The grain output is 8 percent higher this year than that of last year.
④还可以用by+倍数,表示增加多少倍。例如：The production of grain has been increased by four times this year.
2)分数表示法的构成：基数词代表分子,序数词代表分母。分子大于1时,分子的序数词用单数,分母序数词用复数。
例如：1/3,one-third；3/37,three and three-sevenths.
Chapter 14. 冠词
一、概念：
冠词是一个虚词, 本身不能单独使用,也没有词义,它置于名词之前,限定名词的意义。冠词可分为定冠词,不定冠词和零冠词三类。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、不定冠词的用法
不定冠词a(an)与数词one同源,是"一个"的意思。a用于辅音音素前,一般读作[e],而an则用于元音音素前,一般读做[en]。
⑴表示"一个",意为one；指某人或某物,意为a certain。例如：A Mr. Ling is waiting for you.有位姓凌的先生在等你。
⑵代表一类人或物。例如：A knife is a tool for cutting with.刀是切割的工具。
⑶组成词组或成语,如a little / a few / a lot / a type of / a pile / a great many / many a / as a rule / in a hurry / in a minute / in a word / in a short while / after a while / have a cold / have a try /keep an eye on / all of a sudden等。
2、定冠词的用法
定冠词the与指示代词this,that同源,有"那(这)个"的意思,但意义较弱,可以和一个名词连用,来表示某个或某些特定的人或东西。
⑴特指双方都明白的人或物。例如：Take the medicine.把药吃了。
⑵上文提到过的人或事。例如：He bought a house.I've been to the house.他买了幢房子。我去过那幢房子。
⑶指世上独一物二的事物,如the sun, the sky, the moon, the earth等。
⑷与单数名词连用表示一类事物,如the dollar 美元; the fox 狐狸；或与形容词或分词连用,表示一类人：the rich 富人; the living 生者。与复数名词连用,指整个群体。例如：
They are the teachers of this school.(指全体教师)
They are teachers of this school.　 (指部分教师)
⑸用在序数词和形容词最高级,及形容词only,very,same等前面。例如：
Where do you live?　I live on the second floor.你住在哪?我住在二层。
That's the very thing I've been looking for.那正是我要找的东西。
⑹表示所有,相当于物主代词,用在表示身体部位的名词前。例如：She caught me by the arm.她抓住了我的手臂。
⑺用在某些由普通名词构成的国家名称、机关团体、阶级、等专有名词前。例如：the People's Republic of China
⑻用在表示乐器的名词之前。例如：She plays the piano.她会弹钢琴。
⑼用在姓氏的复数名词之前,表示一家人。例如：the Greens格林一家人(或格林夫妇)
⑽用在惯用语中。例如：in the day, in the morning (afternoon,evening),the day after tomorrow,the day before yesterday, the next morning,in the sky (water,field,country),in the dark,in the rain,in the distance,in the middle (of),in the end,on the whole,by the way,go to the theatre
3、零冠词的用法
⑴国名,人名前通常不用定冠词：England,Mary。
⑵泛指的复数名词,表示一类人或事物时,可不用定冠词。例如：They are teachers. 他们是教师。
⑶抽象名词表示一般概念时,通常不加冠词。例如：Failure is the mother of success.失败乃成功之母。
⑷物质名词表示一般概念时,通常不加冠词,当表示特定的意思时,需要加定冠词。例如：Man cannot live without water.
⑸在季节、月份、节日、 假日、日期、星期等表示时间的名词之前,不加冠词。例如：We go to school from Monday to Friday.
⑹在称呼或表示官衔,职位的名词前不加冠词。例如：The guards took the American to General Lee.
⑺在三餐、球类运动和娱乐运动的名称前,不加冠词,如have breakfast,play chess。
⑻当两个或两个以上名词并用时,常省去冠词。例如：I can't write without pen or pencil.没有钢笔和铅笔,我就写不了字。
⑼当by与火车等交通工具连用,表示一种方式时,中间无冠词,如by bus,by train。
⑽有些个体名词不用冠词,如school,college,prison,market,hospital,bed,table,class,town,church,court等个体名词,直接置于介词后,表示该名词的深层含义。例如：go to hospital去医院看病；go to the hospital去医院(并不是去看病,而是有其他目的)
⑾不用冠词的序数词：①序数词前有物主代词时。②序数词作副词。例如：He came first in the race. 他跑步得了第一。③在固定词组中,如at(the)first, first of all, from first to last等。
注：在有些词组中,有冠词和无冠词意思不同,请注意区别：in front of在…前面和in the front of在…范围内的前部；in hospital (生病)住院和 in the hospital 在医院里。
4、冠词与形容词+名词结构
⑴两个形容词都有冠词,表示两个不同的人或物。例如：
He raises a black and a white cat.他养了一只黑猫和一只白猫。
The black and the white cats are hers.　这只黑猫和白猫都是他的。
⑵如后一个形容词无冠词,则指一人或一物。例如：He raises a black and white cat. 他养了一只花猫。
5、冠词位置
⑴不定冠词位置：不定冠词常位于名词或名词修饰语前。
①位于such,what,many,half等形容词之后。例如：I have never seen such an animal. 我从来没见过这样的动物。
②当名词前的形容词被副词as, so, too, how, however, enough修饰时,不定冠词应放在形容词之后。例如：
It is as pleasant a day as I have ever spent. So short a time .Too long a distance.
③quite,rather与单数名词连用,冠词放在其后。但当rather,quite 前仍有形容词,不定冠词放其前后均可,如：rather a cold day/a rather cold day。
④在as,though 引导的让步状语从句中,当表语为形容词修饰的名词时,不定冠词放形容词后。例如：
Brave a man though he is,he trembles at the sight of snakes. 他尽管勇敢,可见到蛇还是发抖。
⑵定冠词位置
定冠词通常位于名词或名词修饰语前,但放在all, both,double,half,twice,three times等词之后,名词之前。例如：
All the students in the class went out.　班里的所有学生都出去了。
Chapter 15. 介词
一、概念：
介词表示它后面的名词或相当于名词的其他结构与句中其他成分的关系。
二、相关知识点精讲：
⑴表示地点位置的介词
①at ,in, on, to
介词
at
in
on
to
用法
(1)表示在小地方; (2)表示“在……附近,旁边”
(1)表示 在大地方; (2)表示“在…范围之内”。
表示毗邻,接壤
表示在……范围外,不强调是否接壤
例句
He arrived at the station at ten.
Jiangsu lies in the east of China.
Russia lies on the north of China.
Fujian is to the south of Jiangsu Province.
②above, over, on在……上
介词
用法
例句
above
指在……上方,不强调是否垂直,与 below相对；
The bird is flying above my head.
over
指垂直的上方,与under相对,但over与物体有一定的空间,不直接接触。
There is a bridge over the river.
on
表示某物体上面并与之接触。
He put his watch on the desk.
③below, under在……下面
介词
用法
例句
under
表示在…正下方
There is a cat under the table.
below
表示在……下,不一定在正下方
Please write your name below the line.
⑵表示时间的介词
①in , on,at在……时
介词
用法
例句
in
表示较长时间,如世纪、朝代、时代、年、季节、月及一般(非特指)的早、中、晚等。
in the 20th century, in the 1950s, in 1989, in summer, in January, in the morning, in the night, in one’s life , in one’s thirties
on
表示具体某一天及其早、中、晚。
on May 1st, on Monday, on New Year’s Day, on a cold night in January, on a fine morning, on Sunday afternoon
at
表示某一时刻或较短暂的时间,或泛指圣诞节,复活节等。
at 3：20, at this time of year, at the beginning of, at the end of …, at the age of …, at Christmas, at night, at noon, at this moment
②in, after 在……之后
介词短语
用法
例句
“in +段时间”
表示将来的一段时间以后；
My mother will come back in three or four days.
“after+段时间”
表示过去的一段时间以后；
He arrived after five months.
“after+将来点时间”
表示将来的某一时刻以后。
She will appear after five o’clock this afternoon.
③from, since自从……
介词
用法
例句
from
仅说明什么时候开始,不说明某动作或情况持续多久；
He studied the piano from the age of three.
since
表示某动作或情况持续至说话时刻,通常与完成时连用。
They have lived here since 1978.
④after, behind在……之后
介词
用法
例句
after
主要用于表示时间；
We shall leave after lunch.
behind
主要用于表示位置。
Lucy is hiding behind an old house.
⑶表运动方向的介词：across, through通过,穿过
介词
用法
例句
across
表示横过,即从物体表面通过,与on有关；
She swam across the river.
through
穿过,即从物体内部穿过,与in有关。
He walked through the forest.
⑷表示“在……之间”的介词：between, among
介词
用法
例句
between
指在两个人或两个事物之间；
There is a football match between Class One and Class Two on the playground.
among
指在三个或三个以上的人或事物之间。
The teacher is standing among the students.
⑸表示其他意义的介词
①on ,about关于
介词
用法
例句
on
表示这本书,这篇文章或演说是严肃的,或学术性的,可供专门研究这一问题的人阅读；
There will be a lecture on economics today.
about
表示内容较为普通,不那么正式。
He told me a lot about his life in the summer vocation.
②by, with, in 表示方法、手段、工具
介词
用法
例句
by
以……方法、手段或泛指某种交通工具；
He makes a living by selling newspapers.
with
表示用 …工具、手段,一般接具体的工具和手段；
He broke the window with a stone.
in
表示用…方式,用…语言(语调、笔墨、颜色)等；
The foreigner spoke to us in English.
③except, besides除了
介词
用法
例句
except
除……之外,不包括在内；
Except Mr. Wang, we went to see the film. (王先生没去)
besides
除……之外,包括在内。
Besides Mr. Wang, we also went to see the film. (王先生也去了)
Chapter .16 连词
一、概念：
连词不能独立担任句子成分,只起连接词与词、短语与短语以及句与句的作用。连词主要可分为两类：并列连词和从属连词。并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组和分句。如：and, but, or, nor, so, therefore, yet, however, for, hence, as well as, both…and, not only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, (and)then等。
二、相关知识点精讲：
⑴表示并列关系的连词有：and, both…and…, not only… but also…和neither…nor…等。
①and和,并且：表示“和”、“并且”的意思,用来连接对等关系的字和字,片语和片语,句子和句子。祁使句后连接and,有条件句作用,此时and=if you…,you’ll… ,例如：
Go straight on, and you’ll see the library.=If you go straight on, you will see the library.
②both…and…既…也…,(两者)都…：both…and…构成的词组作主语时,谓语动词用复数。否定句中表示部分否定。
Both Jim and Kate are from England.
You can’t speak both German and English.(部分否定)
③neither…nor…既不…也不…：连接两个并列主语时,谓语动词靠近哪个主语就与哪个主语保持 “人称”和 “数”的一致,即就近原则。
Neither I nor he has seen the play before.
④not only…but also…不但…而且…：连接两个主语后的谓语动词也遵循就近原则。关联两个分句时,一个分句因有否定词not 而必须倒装。例如：
Not only the mother but also the children are ill.
Not only does he like reading stories, but also he can even write some.他不但喜欢读小说,甚至还会写。
⑵表示转折关系的连词有：but, however, yet, still,while等。
Mary was a nice girl, but she had one shortcoming./Tom got up early, yet he failed to catch the train.
He was very tired, still he kept on walking./Your composition is fairly good, however, there is still some room for improvement.
Jane is hard working ,while her sister is quite lazy.
注：not…but… 意思为"不是…而是…",后面的用词要遵循一致原则。例如：
They were not the bones of an animal, but (the bones) of a human being. 这些不是动物的骨头,而是人的。
⑶表示选择关系的并列连词有：or, either…or…,whether…or…等。
①or或、否则：表示 “或” 的意思,使用于两者之中选择一个的时候。祁使句后连接or ,表“如果…,否则…”,有转折的意思,此时 or =if you don’t …,you’ll …。例如：
Hurry up, or you’ll be late.=If you don’t hurry up, you’ll be late.
②either…or… 或者…或者…; 不是…就是…；要么…要么…：连接两个并列主语时,谓语动词靠近哪个主语就与哪个主语保持 “人称”和 “数”的一致,即就近原则。由either…or…引导的否定句是完全否定。
Either you or I am right.
She isn’t either a student or a teacher.
③whether…or…不管…还是…,例如：She is always cheerful, whether at home or at school.
⑷表示因果关系的并列连词有：for(因为),so(所以),例如：He is not at school today, for he has a bad cold.
⑸引导时间状语从句的从属连词有：before, after, when, while, as, till, until, since, as soon as等。
After they had planted their crops, they took a rest.
We have learned six lessons since he began to teach us.
As soon as he gets to Beijing, he’ll call me.
① when, while, as都表示“当……时”,when从句谓语动词既可以是瞬间动词也可以是延续性动词,可用于主从句动作同时发生或从句动作先于主句动作发生。while从句谓语动词只能是延续性动词,侧重主从句动作同时发生。as引导一个持续性动作,多用于主从句动作同时发生,强调“一边……一边”。例如：
When I came in, my father was cooking.
I came in when/while my father was cooking.
He sang as he walked.
②until用法：当主句谓语动词是延续性动词时,主从句都用肯定式,译为“直到……为止”；当主句谓语动词是瞬间动词时,主句用否定式,从句用肯定式,即not…..until, 译为“直到……才”。例如：
Mr. Green waited until his children came back.(格林先生一直等到他的孩子们回来)
Mr. Green didn’t go to bed until his children came back. (格林先生直到他的孩子们回来才睡觉)
⑹引导条件状语从句的从属连词有：if(如果), unless(除非,如果……不)等。例如：
If you don’t go soon, you’ll be late.=Unless you go soon, you’ll be late.
⑺引导原因状语从句的从属连词有：because, as, since, therefore等。
because“因为”语气最强,回答why提问时只能用because,其引导的从句可放在句首或句末；as“由于”、since“既然”语气不如because强,引导的从句常置于句首；for是并列连词,语气最弱,对前面分句加以解释或补充说明,其引导的分句常置于句末且用逗号隔开。例如：
I think, therefore I exist. 我思故我在。
As it was raining, we went there by bus./Since everybody is here, let’s begin./It must have rained last night, for the ground is wet.
注：because与 so不能同时使用。
⑻引导让步状语从句的从属连词有：although/though(虽然,尽管), even though/if (即使)。例如：
Although/ Though it is a very young country, it is very rich.
Even if/ though you were here yesterday, you couldn’t help him.
注：although/though 引导的从句不能与but连用,但可与yet, still连用。
⑼引导目的状语从句的从属连词有：so that,so as to,in order to和in order that(以便,为了)等。
The teacher spoke loudly so that /in order that we could hear him clearly.
⑽引导结果状语从句的从属连词有：so that(结果是)和so/such…that…(如此…以至于)等。例如：
It was very cold, so that the water in the bowl froze./It is such a heavy box that nobody can move it.
⑾引导比较状语从句的从属连词有：as…as…(与……一样),not as/so… as…(不及,赶不上),和than(比)等。
I know you better than she does./He works as carefully as she./I can’t run as/so fast as you.
⑿引导名词性从句的从属连词有：that和if/whether(是否)等。例如：
We know that the earth goes around the sun.(宾语从句)/I wonder if he has received my e-mail. (宾语从句)
Whether he’ll go there hasn’t been decided.(主语从句)
注：在时间状语从句和条件状语从句中,如果主句是将来时,从句要用一般现在时。例如：
I’ll go on with the work when I come back tomorrow.
注：so与such的比较
such 是形容词,修饰名词或名词词组,so是副词,只能修饰形容词或副词。so 还可与表示数量的形容词many,few,much,little连用,形成固定搭配。
用法
so
so + adj.
so + adj. + a(n) + n.
so + adj. + n. (pl.)
so + adj. + n. (不可数)
such
such + a(n) + n.
such + n. (pl.)
such +n. (pl.)
such +n.(不可数)
注：so many 已成固定搭配,a lot of 虽相当于 many,但 a lot of 为名词性的,只能用such搭配。so…that与such…that之间的转换即为 so与such之间的转换。
附：阅读中需熟练掌握的连接词
熟练掌握以下连接词与连接语,就能充分把握住作者的意图和考题的出题思路,所以希望考生能对之要牢记在心。了解了这些连接词与连接语的不同功能后,相信你一定会在阅读理解上有所收获。一般把连接词与连接语分为以下三类：
⑴表明事件发生的时间顺序：then, first, at once, next,after that, previously, while, when, the following day, etc.
⑵表明文章的组织结构：
1)Listing： firstly, in the first place,secondly, thirdly, my next point is,last/finally, etc.
2)Illustrating： for example/ for instance, to illustrate, an example/ instance of this is,let’s take….., take…. for example, etc.
3)Re-stating： in other words, that is to say,to put it another way, let me put it this way,or rather, namely, etc.
4)Referring： in this respect, in that connection, as we said, apart from this, etc.
5)Resuming： to resume, to return to the previous point, getting back to the argument,etc.
6)Summarizing： to sum up, in short, it amounts to this, what I have been saying is this, etc.
7)Emphasizing： it is worth noting, I would like to direct your attention to, let us consider, we must now turn to, I shall begin by,etc.
⑶表明作者的观点、态度
1)Introducing( or emphasizing) further evidence： moreover, furthermore, in addition,what’s more, as well, etc.
2)Cause： because (of), since, owing to, on account of, due to, as a result of, etc.
3)Effect： as a result, hence, therefore,consequently, thus, so, etc.
4)Contrasting： in / by contrast, on the contrary, on the other hand, nevertheless,whereas, while, yet, however, but, etc.
5)Comparison： in like manner, likewise, in the same way, similarly, in comparison with, etc.
6)Purpose： to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind, in order to, so that, etc.
7)Intensification： indeed, in fact, in any event / case, at no time, to tell the truth, etc
Chapter 17. 构词法
一、概念：
英语的构词法主要有：合成法,转化法,派生法,混成法,截短法和词首字母缩略法。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、转化法
英语中,有的名词可作动词,有的形容词可作副词或动词,这种把一种词性用作另一种词性而词形不变的方法叫作转化法。
⑴动词转化为名词
很多动词可以转化为名词,意思没有多大的变化(如下①)；有时意思有一定变化(如下②)；有的与一个动词和不定冠词构成短语,表示一个动作(如下③)。例如：
①Let's go out for a walk.我们到外面去散散步吧。   ②He is a man of strong build.他是一个体格健壮的汉子。
③Let's have a swim.咱们游泳吧。
⑵名词转化为动词
很多表示物件(如下①)、身体部位(如下②)、某类人(如下③)的名词可以用作动词来表示动作,某些抽象名词(如下④)也可作动词。例如：
①Did you book a seat on the plane?你订好飞机座位了吗?   ②Please hand me the book.请把那本书递给我。
③She nursed her husband back to health.她看护丈夫,使他恢复了健康。   ④We lunched together.我们在一起吃了午餐。
⑶形容词转化为动词
有少数形容词可以转化为动词。例如：We will try our best to better our living conditions.我们要尽力改善我们的生活状况。
⑷副词转化为动词
有少数副词可以转化为动词。例如：Murder will out.(谚语)恶事终必将败露。
⑸形容词转化为名词
表示颜色的形容词常可转化为名词(如下①)；某些形容词如old, young, poor, rich, wounded, injured等与the连用,表示一类人,作主语时,谓语用复数(如下②)。例如：
①You should be dressed in black at the funeral.你在葬礼中该穿黑色衣服。
②The old in our village are living a happy life.我们村的老年人过着幸福的生活。
2、派生法
在词根前面加前缀或在词根后面加后缀构成一个与原单词意义相近或截然相反的新词叫作派生法。
⑴前缀：除少数前缀外,前缀一般改变单词的意义,不改变词性；后缀一般改变词类,而不引起词义的变化。
①表示否定意义的前缀常用的有dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, mis-, non-, un-等,在单词的前面加这类前缀常构成与该词意义相反的新词。例如：appear出现→disappear消失；correct正确的→incorrect不正确的；lead带领→mislead领错；stop停下→non-stop不停
②表示其他意义的前缀常用的有a-(多构成表语形容词), anti- (反对；抵抗), auto- (自动), co- (共同), en- (使), inter- (互相), re- (再；又), sub- (下面的；次；小), tele- (强调距离)等。例如：alone单独的,antigas防毒气的,autochart自动图表,cooperate合作,enjoy使高兴,internet互联网,reuse再用,subway地铁,telephone电话；
⑵后缀：英语单词不仅可以通过加前缀构成新词,也可加后缀构成新词。后缀通常会改变单词的词性,构成意义相近的其他词性；少数后缀还会改变词义,变为与原来词义相反的新词。
①构成名词的后缀常用的有-ence,-(e)r/ -or (从事某事的人),-ese (某地人),-ess (雌性),-ful (一……),-ian (精通……的人),-ist (专业人员),-ment (性质；状态),-ness (性质；状态),-tion(动作；过程)等。例如：
differ不同于→difference区别；write写→writer作家；Japan日本→Japanese日本人；act表演→actress女演员
mouth口→mouthful一口；music音乐→musician音乐家
②构成动词的后缀常用的有-(e)n (多用于形容词之后),-fy (使……化),-ize (使……成为)。例如：
wide→widen加宽；beauty→beautify美化；pure→purify提纯；real→realize意识到；organ→organize组织
③构成形容词的后缀常用的有-al,-able (有能力的),-(a)n(某国人的),-en (多用于表示材料的名词后),-ern (方向的),-ese(某国人的),-ful,-(ic)al,-ish,-ive,-less (表示否定),-like (像……的),-ly,-ous,-some,-y (表示天气)等。例如：
nature自然→natural自然的；reason道理→reasonable有道理的；America美国→American美国的
China中国→Chinese中国人的；gold金子→golden金的；east东→eastern东方的；
child孩子→childish孩子气的；snow雪→snowy雪的
④构成副词的常用后缀有-ly (主要用于形容词之后表示方式或程度),-ward(s) (主要用于表示方位的词之后表示方向)。例如：
angry生气的→angrily生气地；to到→towards朝……,向……；east东方→eastward向东
⑤构成数词的后缀有-teen (十几),-ty (几十),-th (构成序数词)。例如：
six六→sixteen十六→sixteenth第十六；four四→forty四十→fortieth第四十
3、合成法
⑴合成名词：参见构成方式例词
方式
名词＋名词
名词＋动词
名词＋动名词
名词＋及物动词＋er／or
名词＋介词＋名词
代词＋名词
举例
weekend周末
daybreak黎明
handwriting书法
pain-killer止痛药
editor-in-chief总编辑
she-wolf母狼
方式
动词＋名词
动名词＋名词
现在分词＋名词
形容词＋名词
副词＋动词
介词＋名词
举例
typewriter打字机
reading-room阅览室
flying-fish飞鱼
gentleman绅士
outbreak爆发
afternoon下午
⑵合成形容词：参见构成方式例词
方式
名词＋形容词
名词＋现在分词
名词＋to＋名词
名词＋过去分词
数词＋名词
数词＋名词＋形容词
举例
snow-white
雪白的
English-speaking讲英语的
face-to-face
面对面的
man-made
人造的
one-way
单行的
two-year-old
两岁的
方式
数词＋名词＋ed
动词＋副词
形容词＋名词
形容词＋名词＋ed
形容词＋形容词
形容词＋现在分词
举例
five-storeyed
五层的
see-through
透明的
high-class
高级的
noble-minded
高尚的
light-blue
浅蓝色的
good-looking
相貌好看的
方式
副词＋形容词
副词＋现在分词
副词＋过去分词
副词＋名词
介词＋名词
举例
ever-green
常青的
hard-working
勤劳的
well-known
著名的
fast-food专门提供快餐服务的
downhill下坡的
⑶合成动词：参见构成方式例词
方式
名词＋动词
形容词＋动词
副词＋动词
举例
sleep-walk梦游
white-wash粉刷
overthrow推翻
⑷合成副词：参见构成方式例词
方式
形容词＋名词
形容词＋副词
副词＋副词
介词＋名词
介词＋副词
举例
hotfoot匆忙地
everywhere到处
however尽管如此
beforehand事先
forever永远
⑸合成代词：参见构成方式例词
方式
代词宾格＋self
物主代词＋self
形容词＋名词
举例
herself她自己
myself我自己
anything任何东西
⑹合成介词：参见构成方式例词
方式
副词＋名词
介词＋副词
副词＋介词
举例
inside在……里面
within在……之内
into进入
4、截短法(缩略法)
截短法,即将单词缩写,词义和词性保持不变,主要有截头、去尾、截头去尾等形式。
⑴截头：telephone→phone；aeroplane→plane；omnibus→bus
⑵去尾：mathematics→maths；co-operate→co-op；examination→exam；kilogram→kilo；laboratory→lab；taxicab→taxi
⑶截头去尾：influenza→flu；refrigerator→fridge；prescription→script
5、混合法(混成法)
混合法,即将两个词混合或各取一部分紧缩而成一个新词。后半部分表示主体；前半部分表示属性。例如：
news broadcast→newscast新闻广播；television broadcast→telecast电视播送；smoke and fog→smog烟雾
helicopter airport→heliport直升飞机场
6、首尾字母缩略法
首尾字母缩略法,即用单词首尾字母组成一个新词。读音主要有两种形式,即各字母分别读音；作为一个单词读音。例如：
very important person→VIP (读字母音)要人；television→TV (读字母音)电视；
Testing of English as a Foreign Language→TOEFL托福
第二部分  句法
Chapter 18. 名词性从句
一、概念：
在句中起名词作用的句子称名词性从句。名词性从句的功能相当于名词词组, 它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等,因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能,名词性从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。
1、引导名词性从句的连接词可分为三类：
连接词：that, whether ,if (不充当从句的任何成分)
连接代词：what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whose, which
连接副词：when, where, how, why
2、不可省略的连词：①介词后的连词②引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。例如：
That she was chosen made us very happy.  她被选上了,我们很高兴。
We heard the news that our team had won. 我们听到消息说我们队赢了。
注：比较：whether与if
均为"是否"的意思。但在下列情况下,whether不能被if 取代：①whether引导主语从句并在句首②引导表语从句③whether从句作介词宾语④从句后有"or not"
大部分连接词引导的主语从句都可以置于句末,用it充当形式主语。例如：
It is not important who will go. 谁去,这不重要。
It is still unknown which team will win the match. 到底谁赢呢,形势尚不明朗。
3、名词性that-从句
①由从属连词that引导的从句叫做名词性that-从句。That只起连接主句和从句的作用,在从句中不担任任何成分,本身也没有词义。名词性that-从句在句中能充当主语、宾语、表语、同位语和形容词宾语。例如：
主语：That he is still alive is sheer luck.　 他还活着全靠运气。
宾语：John said that he was leaving for London on Wednesday.　约翰说他星期三要到伦敦去。
表语：The fact is that he has not been seen recently. 事实是近来谁也没有见过他。
同位语：The fact that he has not been seen recently disturbs everyone in his office.
形容词宾语：I am glad that you are satisfied with your job. 你对工作满意我感到很高兴。
②That-从句作主语通常用it作先行词,而将that-从句置于句末。例如：
It is quite clear that the whole project is doomed to failure.　很清楚,整个计划注定要失败。
It's a pity that you should have to leave.　你非走不可真是件憾事。
用it作形式主语的that-从句有以下四种不同的搭配关系：
搭配关系
举例
It + be +形容词+ that-从句
It is necessary that…；It is important that…；It is obvious that…
It + be + -ed 分词+ that-从句
It is believed that…；It is known to all that…；It has been decided that…
It + be +名词+ that-从句
It is common knowledge that…；It is a surprise that…；It is a fact that…
It +不及物动词+ that-分句
It appears that…；It happens that…；It occurred to me that…
4、名词性wh-从句
①由wh-词引导的名词从句叫做名词性wh-从句。Wh-词包括who, whom,. whose, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever等连接代词和where, when, how, why等连接副词。Wh-从句的语法功能除了和that-从句一样外,还可充当介词宾语、宾语补语和间接宾语等。例如：
主语：How the book will sell depends on its author.书销售如何取决于作者本人。
直接宾语：In one's own home one can do what one likes.在自己家里可以随心所欲。
间接宾语：The club will give whoever wins a prize.获胜者俱乐部将颁奖。
表语：My question is who will take over president of the Foundation.我的问题是谁将接任该基金会主席职位。
宾语补足语：She will name him whatever she wants to. 她高兴给他起什么名字就取什么名字。
同位语：I have no idea when he will return.我不知道他什么时候回来。
形容词宾语：I'm not sure why she refused their invitation.我尚不能肯定她为什么拒绝他们的邀请。
介词宾语：That depends on where we shall go. 那取决于我们去哪儿。
②Wh-从句作主语也常用先行词it做形式主语,而将wh-从句置于句末。例如：
It is not yet decided who will do that job.还没决定谁做这项工作。
It remains unknown when they are going to get married.他们何时结婚依然不明。
5、if, whether引导的名词从句
①yes-no型疑问从句
从属连词if, whether引导的名词从句是由一般疑问句或选择疑问转化而来的,因此也分别被称为yes-no型疑问句从句和选择型疑问从句,其功能和wh-从句的功能相同。例如：
主语：Whether the plan is feasible remains to be proved. 这一计划是否可行还有等证实。
宾语：Let us know whether / if you can finish the article before Friday. 请让我们知道你是否能在星期五以前把文章写完。
表语：The point is whether we should lend him the money. 问题在于我们是否应该借钱给他。
同位语：They are investigating the question whether the man is trustworthy.他们调查他是否值得信赖。
形容词宾语： She's doubtful whether we shall be able to come. 她怀疑我们是否能够前来。
介词宾语： I worry about whether he can pass through the crisis of his illness. 我担心他是否能度过疾病的危险期。
②选择性疑问从句
选择性疑问从句由关联词if/whether…or或whethe…or not构成。例如：
Please tell me whether / if they are Swedish or Danish. 请告诉我他们是瑞典人还是丹麦人。
I don't care whether you like the plan or not. 我不在乎你是否喜欢该计划。
二、相关知识点精讲：
1、主语从句：主语从句在整个句子中作主语。
⑴不同于其它的连词,它不充当句子的成分,只是单纯的连接词,通常不可以省略。分句置于句首时,that绝对不可以省略。例如：
That the driver could not control his war was obvious./It was obvious that the driver could not control his car.
⑵if不能用在主语从句中,而是用whether。例如：Whether he left (or not) is unknown.
⑶当主语从句作主语时,谓语动词需根据从句而定,一般用第三人称单数。
What we need is more time and money./What we need are many more books.
2、表语从句：表语从句出现在系动词后,充当表语。例如：
The trouble is that we are short of money./Go and get your coat. It’s where you left it.
⑴引导表语从句除了上述三类词外还有because, as if/ as though等,例如：The reason (why/for which…..) is that …、 It/This/That is because…。
⑵连系动词“appear, look, seem”的两个常用句型：It seems/appears that…/It looks/seems as if/as though……(与事实相符用陈述语气,与事实相反用虚拟语气)
注：将seem, appear等后的从句的否定转移到前面。例如：It doesn't appear that we'll have a sunny day tomorrow.
⑶as也可以引导表语从句,例如：Things are not always as they seem to be
3、宾语从句：及物动词,形容词和介词后加宾语从句作其宾语。
⑴宾语从句时态与主句相呼应,但宾语从句表示的是客观真理或普遍现象除外,例如：
The teacher told us that the earth moves around the sun
⑵连词whether和 if可以互换,但注意下列情况：
①连词后紧跟or not时用whether：I want to know whether or not they will come.
②作介词宾语是用whether引导宾语从句：He was interested in whether he saw her there.
③连接词后直接加不定式,不能用if只能用whether：He doesn’t know whether to stay or not.
④如果宾语从句是否定时,一般用if引导：I care if he will not attend the meeting.
⑶当宾语从句后带宾补时,要用“主语+谓语+it +宾补+that-clause,that不可省略：I think it certain that she will do well in her exam.
④当主语是I, we ,主句用think, believe, suppose, expect, fancy,imagine等动词时,用否定转移。动词后面宾语从句的否定词转移到主句中,即主句的谓语动词用否定式,而从句的谓语动词用肯定式。例如：
I don’t think he will win the game, will he?
注：若谓语动词为hope,宾语从句中的否定词不能转移。例如：I hope you weren't ill. 我想你没有生病吧。
⑤that在宾语从句常可以省略,但由and或 but连接两个或多个宾语从句时,仅可以省略第一个连词that。例如：
He said (that) he had eaten nothing but that he wasn’t hungry.
⑥注意区别if引导的宾语从句和条件状语从句,例如：I don’t know if he will come.与If he comes, I’ll let you know.
4、同位语从句：在句中作某些名词的同位语,对前面的名词作进一步的说明。如：There is no doubt that he will come.
注：that引导的同位语从句与定语从句的区别
在同位语从句中,that不可以省略,不作成分；定语从句的关系代词that在定语从句作成分,作宾语时可以省略。例如：
We are interested in the news that some foreigners would visit our school./We are interested in the news that he told us.
注：when, where引导的同位语从句与定语从句的区别
在定语从句中,when, where前有分别表示时间、地点的先行词；而在同位语从句中无此对应关系。例如：
They have no idea at all where he has gone.(同位语从句)/Go and get your coat. It’s in the place where you left it.(定语从句)
注：疑问词-ever既可以引导名词性从句,也可以引导让步状语从句,而no matter+疑问词只能引导让步状语从句。例如：
No matter where I go, my heart is towards China./Whatever he says, I will never believe him.
6、当名词性从句缺少主语、宾语或表语时,引导词通常用what,它相当于all that, anything that或 the thing(s) that。另外,有时具有感叹意义。例如：What we can’t get seems better than what we have./Tom thought what a beautiful girl Mary was.
注：区分it 作形式主语的主语从句与强调句,强调句句型It is/was+被强调部分+that, 去掉It is/was, that,句子仍然成立。例如：
It is natural that they should have different views. 主语从句
It is only lately that he had had a family himself. 强调句
注：注意it 作形式主语的主语从句和as引导非限制性定语从句引导的不同。
It is known to all that the earth is round.=As is known to all,the earth is round.