遥感测绘院待遇:Economic Analysis of Projects - Glossary of T...

Table of Contents p. 74 of 74 BACK | NEXT I. Introduction II. Background III. The Economic Rationale of A Project IV. Macroeconomic and Sectoral Context V. An Integrated Approach To Economic Analysis VI. Identification and Quantification of Costs and Benefits VII. Valuation of Economic Costs and Benefits VIII. Large Projects, Linkages, and National Affordability IX. Least-Cost and Cost-Effective Analysis X. Investment Criteria: Economic Viability XI. Discount Rate XII. Uncertainty: Sensitivity and Risk Analysis XIII. Sustainability of Project Effects XIV. Distribution of Project Effects XV. Projects and Policies XVI. Appendices XVII. Others Abbreviations Glossary of Terms Guidelines for the Economic Analysis of Projects : XVII. Others

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Glossary of Terms

Average incremental economic cost (AIEC). The present value of investment and operation costs at economic prices, divided by the present value of the quantity of output. Costs and output are calculated from the difference between the without project and with project situations, and are discounted at the economic opportunity cost of capital.

Average incremental financial cost (AIFC). The present value of investment and operation costs at financial prices divided by the present value of the quantity of output. Costs and output are calculated from the difference between the without project and with project situations, and are discounted at the opportunity cost of capital or at the weighted average cost of capital.

Benefit-cost ratio (BCR). The ratio of the present value of the economic benefits stream to the present value of the economic costs stream, each discounted at the economic opportunity cost of capital. The ratio should be greater than 1.0 for a project to be acceptable.

Benefit transfer technique. The use of primary research results from other countries, adapted to a particular project, for valuation of project effects. Used especially in the valuation of environmental benefits and costs where national studies of environmental stressors are lacking.

Border price. The unit price of a traded good at a countrys border, that is, the free-on-board (FOB) price for exports and the cost, insurance, freight (CIF) price for imports. The border price is measured at the point of entry to a country, or, for landlocked countries, at the railhead or trucking point.

Border price equivalent value (BPEV). The border price for a traded good for the country concerned, adjusted to the project location.

Constant prices. Future price values from which any expected change in the general price level is removed. When applied to all project costs and benefits over the life of the project, the resulting project statement is in constant prices. Expected significant changes in relative prices, that is, in expected price changes for an item compared with the expected change in the general price level, should also be incorporated in the valuation of costs and benefits at constant prices.

Consumer surplus. Savings to existing consumers arising from the difference between what they are willing to pay for an output and what they will be charged with the project. Consumer surplus can arise when expanded supply is associated with a fall in price. It can also arise when the output price is regulated by government and set below the demand price.

Consumption tax. Taxes levied on the consumption of goods and services. Indirect taxes on consumption include excise duties, wholesale or retail sales taxes, value-added taxes, or other taxes on intermediate transactions. Consumption taxes form a wedge between the price paid by the purchaser and the price received by the supplier. For any good or service, the demand price is the market price plus consumption taxes and less consumption subsidies.

Contingency allowance. An allowance included in the project cost estimates to allow for adverse conditions that will add to base costs. Physical contingencies representing the monetary value of additional resources that may be required beyond the base cost to complete the project are included in the economic cost of a project. Price contingencies allow, for financing purposes, for general inflation during the implementation period but are not included in a constant price project statement.

Contingent valuation. A direct means of estimating willingness to pay based on stated preferences of consumers in the situation with the project. Contingent valuation estimates can be used to provide an estimate of the economic value of incremental nontraded outputs and inputs, especially those, such as environmental effects, for which there is no direct market information.

Conversion factor (CF). Ratio between the economic price value and the financial price value for a project output or input, which can be used to convert the constant price financial values of project benefits and costs to economic values. Conversion factors can also be applied for groups of typical items, such as, petrochemicals or grains; and for the economy as a whole, as in the standard conversion factor or shadow exchange rate factor.

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA). An analysis that seeks to find the best alternative activity, process, or intervention that minimizes resource use to achieve a desired result. Alternatively, where resources are constrained, analysis that seeks to identify the best alternative that maximizes results for a given application of resources. CEA is applied when project effects can be identified and quantified but not adequately valued.

Cost-effectiveness ratio. The ratio of the present value of project costs to the present value of project effects or outcomes, where costs and effects are discounted at the opportunity cost of capital. Choice of the means with the lowest cost-effectiveness ratio will maximize results for a given input of resources. It also provides the baseline for assessing how much it would cost in terms of extra resources to achieve greater results, through the use of more effective but more costly alternatives.

Cost recovery. The extent to which user charges for goods and services recover the full costs of providing such services, including a return on capital employed. Can be defined in terms of financial cost recovery using financial costs or economic cost recovery using economic costs. See also Subsidy.

Current prices. Future price values that include the effects of expected general price inflation. When applied to all project inputs and outputs, they provide a project statement in current prices.

Demand price. The price at which purchasers are willing to buy a given amount of project output, or the price at which a project is willing to buy a given amount of a project input.

Depletion premium. A premium imposed on the economic cost of depletable resources representing the loss to the national economy in the future of using up the resource today. The premium is frequently estimated as the additional cost of an alternative supply of the resource, or a substitute, when the least cost source of supply has been depleted.

Discount rate. A percentage rate representing the rate at which the value of equivalent benefits and costs decrease in the future compared to the present. The rate can be based on the alternative economic return in other uses given up by committing resources to a particular project, or on the preference for consumption benefits today rather than later. The discount rate is used to determine the present value of future benefit and cost streams.

Distribution effects. An analysis of the net income effects of project costs and benefits on different project participants, including the difference between financial and economic values for project outputs and inputs. Distribution effects can refer to the net income effects between, at least, producers, users, and government, and sometimes workers and lenders, as well, for utility projects; to the particular net income effect for the poor; and to the net income effect for foreign and domestic participants.

Economic efficiency. A criterion for assessing an investment or intervention in an economy. An investment or intervention is said to be economically efficient when it maximizes the value of output from the resources available.

Economic internal rate of return (EIRR). The rate of return that would be achieved on all project resource costs, where all benefits and costs are measured in economic prices. The EIRR is calculated as the rate of discount for which the present value of the net benefit stream becomes zero, or at which the present value of the benefit stream is equal to the present value of the cost stream. For a project to be acceptable the EIRR should be greater than the economic opportunity cost of capital.

Economic opportunity cost of capital (EOCK). The real rate of return in economic prices on the marginal unit of investment in its best alternative use. This rate of return is estimated as the weighted average of the economic demand and supply price of capital, and therefore will be equal to the value of the marginal unit of investible funds to both investors and savers.

Economic price of land. The economic effect of the change in land use as a result of a project. Changes in land use can be the direct result of a project, or indirect, through the consequent displacement and relocation of households or economic activities. The economic price of land is estimated through its economic value in the best alternative use. In practice this is generally taken as the net economic value of production lost when land use changes. This valuation should include anticipated future changes in the productivity of the land. It can also be estimated through the willingness to pay to retain a without project land use.

Economic viability. The assessment that increases in output produced by a project using the least cost method will recover costs, provide an additional required rate of return, and sustain effective production in the face of uncertainty and risk.

Effective assistance ratio (EAR). The ratio of value added generated by an activity measured at financial prices to value added for the same activity measured at economic prices. The EAR provides a summary measure of the protective effect of government policy measures, such as taxes and subsidies, and market structure. Also referred to as the effective protection ratio.

Elasticity. The ratio of the proportionate change in one variable caused by a proportionate change in another variable, all other conditions remaining constant. For example, it is used to refer to the price elasticity of demand, that is, the relative response of demand to price changes; or the income elasticity of demand, that is, the relative response of demand to income changes.

Environmental sustainability. The assessment that a projects outputs can be produced without permanent and unacceptable change in the natural environment on which it and other economic activities depend, over the life of the project.

Environmental valuation. The estimation of the use and nonuse values of the environmental effects of a project. These valuations can be based on underlying damage functions for environmental stressors, identifying the extra physical costs of projects or the physical benefits of mitigatory actions. They can also be based on market behavior, which may reveal the value placed by different groups on avoiding environmental costs or enjoying environmental benefits.

Equalizing discount rate (EDR). The discount rate at which the present values of two project alternatives are equal. It is the same as the internal rate of return on the incremental effects of undertaking an alternative with larger net costs earlier in the net benefit stream rather than an alternative with lower early net costs. The EDR is compared with the economic opportunity cost of capital to determine whether the alternative with larger net costs is worthwhile. Also referred to as the crossover discount rate, the discount rate above or below which the preferred alternative changes from one to another.

Excludability. The ability of suppliers to restrict the availability of outputs to those who can pay for it, or by other criteria. See also Private goods and Public goods.

Externality. Effects of an economic activity not included in the project statement from the point of view of the main project participants, and therefore not included in the financial costs and revenues that accrue to them. Externalities represent part of the difference between private costs and benefits, and social costs and benefits. Externalities should be quantified and valued, and included in the project statement for economic analysis.

Financial internal rate of return (FIRR). The rate of return that would be achieved on all project costs, where all costs are measured in financial prices and when benefits represent the financial revenues that would accrue to the main project participant. The FIRR is the rate of discount for which the present value of the net revenue stream becomes zero, or at which the present value of the revenue stream is equal to the present value of the cost stream. It should be compared with the opportunity cost of capital, or the weighted average cost of capital, to assess the financial sustainability of a project.

Financial sustainability. The assessment that a project will have sufficient funds to meet all its resource and financing obligations, whether these funds come from user charges or budget sources; will provide sufficient incentive to maintain the participation of all project participants; and will be able to respond to adverse changes in financial conditions.

Gross economic benefit. The total economic value of project output, measured as the sum of the economic value of nonincremental output that displaces other supplies and the economic value of incremental output that increases supplies.

Gross economic cost. The total economic value of a project input, calculated as the sum of the economic value of incremental demands that are met by greater supplies of the input and the economic value of nonincremental demands that are met by drawing supplies away from other uses.

Incremental outputs and inputs. Incremental output is additional output produced by a project over and above what would be available and demanded in the without project situation. Incremental inputs are inputs that are supplied from an increase in production of the input over and above what would be produced and supplied in the without project situation.

Least-cost analysis. Analysis that compares the costs of technically feasible but mutually exclusive alternatives for supplying output to meet a given forecast demand. The analysis should be carried out using discounted values over the life of a project, where possible, using the opportunity cost of capital as the discount rate. Such analysis is used to identify the least cost option for meeting project demand.

Market failure. The inability of a system of market production to provide certain goods either at all or at the optimal level because of imperfections in the market mechanism; or the inability of a system of markets to fully account for all costs of supplying outputs. Market failure results in the overproduction of goods and services having negative external effects and the underproduction of goods and services having positive external effects. Market failure occurs for different reasons, for example, inadequate information, inadequate capacity, regulation of the movement of labor and capital, or rent-seeking behavior by producers. The existence of market failure provides a case for collective or government action directed at improving efficiency.

Mutually exclusive project alternatives. Alternative technologies, locations, scales, or timing of project costs such that the selection of one option leads to the rejection of others. Mutually exclusive project alternatives can be compared to arrive at the best project design.

Net present value (NPV). The difference between the present value of the benefit stream and the present value of the cost stream for a project. The net present value calculated at the Banks discount rate should be greater than zero for a project to be acceptable.

Nominal prices. An alternative expression for current prices. See Current prices.

Nonincremental outputs and inputs. Nonincremental output is output produced by a project that substitutes for supplies that would be available in the without project situation. Nonincremental inputs are inputs that are supplied to a project that, in the without project situation, would be produced and supplied to another project.

Nonmarket failure. Inefficiencies in the implementation and operation of economic activities. These may result from inadequate incentives to those involved in the provision of goods and services, inadequate information about methods and techniques, inadequate resources for maintenance and operation, or lack of accountability for outputs produced. Nonmarket failures can lead to insufficient and costly supplies, especially of public goods produced in uncompetitive circumstances.

Nontraded outputs and inputs. Goods and services that are not imported or exported by the country in which the project is located, because by their nature they must be produced and sold within the domestic economy, for example, domestic transport and construction, or because of government policy that prohibits international trade, or because there is no international market for the product given its quality or cost. Nontraded outputs that are incremental should be valued at their demand price, that is, at the average of their value to new and existing consumers without and with the project. Nontraded outputs that are nonincremental should be valued at their supply price, that is, taking into account the cost of supply of the alternative output being displaced. Nontraded inputs that are incremental should be valued at their supply price, that is, at the marginal economic costs of extra supply. Nontraded inputs that are nonincremental should be valued at their demand price, that is, at the average of the price that existing consumers would be willing to pay to retain supplies, and the price that new consumers would be willing to pay to acquire supplies.

Numeraire. The common yardstick that measures the objective being maximized. In project financial analysis this yardstick is the real income change for the project participants valued in domestic market prices. In project economic analysis, because the scope of the analysis differs, and because domestic market prices do not always reflect the scarcity value of project outputs and inputs, this yardstick is the real change in net national income for the project as a whole valued in economic prices. Generally, the real change in net national income can be measured at two different price levels. These are the domestic price level, where all economic prices are expressed in their equivalent domestic market price level values (the domestic price numeraire), and the world price level, where all economic prices are expressed at their equivalent world market price level values (the world price numeraire). As long as consistency is maintained in a particular calculation across all project effects, project decisions will not be affected by whether the domestic price level or the world price level is used to express the numeraire.

Opportunity cost. The benefit foregone from not using a good or resource in its best alternative use. Opportunity cost measured at economic prices is the appropriate value to use in project economic analysis for valuing nonincremental outputs and incremental inputs.

Poverty impact ratio. The ratio, generally expressed as a percentage, of the net economic benefits accruing to the poor to the total net economic benefits of a project.

Private goods. Goods characterized by very high levels of subtractability and excludability. Subtractability means that one persons consumption of the good reduces the quantity available to others. Excludability means that the producer can restrict use of the product to those consumers who are willing to pay for it, while excluding those who do not meet this or other criteria. Private goods can be produced under private ownership or under public ownership. Except under special circumstances, for example, production in conditions of natural monopoly and where the government lacks the capacity to regulate, production of private goods increasingly is undertaken under private ownership.

Producer surplus. The excess of the revenue received by a producer of a commodity over the minimum amount they would be willing to accept to maintain the same level of supply.

Productive efficiency. Achievement of a specific level of output or objective using the most cost-effective means. Productive efficiency is a precondition for achieving the best allocation of resources among different uses.

Project alternatives. Technically feasible ways of achieving a projects objectives. Project alternatives can be defined in terms of different possible locations, technologies, scales, and timings. It can also refer to alternatives between physical investments, policy changes, and capacity building activities. Consideration of project alternatives, and selection of the best alternative, should precede the assessment of economic viability.

Project assistance coefficient (PAC). The ratio, generally expressed as a percentage, of the net benefits of a project or activity measured in financial prices to the net benefits of the project or activity measured in economic prices. See also Effective assistance ratio.

Public goods. Goods characterized by very low levels of subtractibility and excludability, by contrast with Private goods above. Low subtractability implies that a good is available to all consumers at the same time, and consumption by one consumer does not use up or reduce the supply available for another consumer. Low excludability implies that if a good is provided to a consumer in a defined region then other consumers in that region cannot be easily excluded from consuming the same good. An example of a pure public good is national security, which is available to all citizens of a country simultaneously. Several other goods are quasi-public, having low levels of subtractibility and excludability. Public goods are generally provided under public ownership, although several can be provided, through contract and regulation, under private ownership.

Real exchange rate. The price of foreign currency in terms of domestic currency where the rate of exchange is adjusted for the relative value of actual or expected domestic and international inflation.

Real prices. An alternative expression for constant prices. See Constant prices.

Relative prices. The future price value of an output or input relative to the price of another input or output, or to the prices of all goods and services in general. If all prices increase at the same rate, all prices will rise but relative prices will remain unchanged. If the price of an output or input increases either more slowly or faster than the prices of other goods in general, then there will be a relative price change.

Return to equity. The return on capital that will accrue to the owners of a project after all financial obligations to lenders, government, workers, and suppliers are met. It provides an indicator for assessing the incentive to investors to invest in a project compared with other uses of their funds.

Risk analysis. The analysis of project risks associated with the value of key project variables, and therefore the risk associated with the overall project result. Quantitative risk analysis considers the range of possible values for key variables, and the probability with which they may occur. Simultaneous and random variation within these ranges leads to a combined probability that the project will be unacceptable. When deciding on a particular project or a portfolio of projects, decision makers may take into account not only the expected scale of project net benefits but the risk that they will not be achieved.

Sensitivity analysis. The analysis of the possible effects of adverse changes on a project. Values of key variables are changed one at a time, or in combinations, to assess the extent to which the overall project result, measured by the economic net present value, would be affected. Where the project is shown to be sensitive to the value of a variable that is uncertain, that is, where relatively small and likely changes in a variable affect the overall project result, mitigating actions at the project, sector, or national level should be considered, or a pilot project implemented.

Sensitivity indicator. The ratio of the percentage change in NPV to the percentage change in a selected variable. A high value for the indicator indicates project sensitivity to the variable.

Shadow exchange rate. The economic price of foreign currency used in the economic valuation of goods and services. The shadow exchange rate can be calculated as the weighted average of the demand price and the supply price for foreign exchange. Alternatively, it can be estimated as the ratio of the value of all goods in an economy at domestic market prices to the value of all goods in an economy at their border price equivalent values. Generally the shadow exchange rate is greater than the official exchange rate, indicating that domestic purchasers place a higher value on foreign currency resources than is given by the official exchange rate.

Shadow exchange rate factor (SERF). The ratio of the economic price of foreign currency to its market price. Alternatively, the ratio of the shadow to the official exchange rate. This factor will generally be greater than 1. For economic analysis using the domestic price numeraire, the SERF is applied to all outputs and inputs, including labor and land, that have been valued at border price equivalent values, with project effects measured at domestic market price values left unadjusted. The inverse of the Standard conversion factor.

Shadow wage rate (SWR). The economic price of labor measured in the appropriate numeraire as the weighted average of its demand and supply price. For labor that is scarce, the SWR is likely to be equal to or greater than the project wage. For labor that is not scarce, the SWR is likely to be less than the project wage. Where labor markets for labor that is not scarce are competitive, the SWR can be approximated by a market wage rate for casual unskilled labor in the relevant location, and adjusted to the appropriate numeraire.

Shadow wage rate factor (SWRF). The ratio of the shadow wage rate of a unit of a certain type of labor, measured in the appropriate numeraire, and the project wage for the same category of labor. Alternatively, the ratio of the economic and financial cost of labor. The SWRF can be used to convert the financial cost of labor into its economic cost.

Standard conversion factor (SCF). The ratio of the economic price value of all goods in an economy at their border price equivalent values to their domestic market price value. It represents the extent to which border price equivalent values, in general, are lower than domestic market price values. The SCF will generally be less than one. For economic analysis using the world price numeraire, it is applied to all project items valued at their domestic market price values to convert them to a border price equivalent value, while items valued at their border price equivalent value are left unadjusted. The SCF and SERF are the inverse of each other.

Subsidy. In the provision of utility services, the difference between average user charges and the average incremental cost of supply. A subsidy can be estimated in economic terms, using economic costs of supply, or in financial terms using financial costs of supply. The economic effects of a subsidy include the consequences of meeting them through generating funds elsewhere in the economy. Subsidies need explicit justification on efficiency grounds, or to ensure access to a selected number of basic goods.

Subtractability. The extent to which one users consumption of a good or service reduces the ability of others to consume the good or service without an increase in production cost. See also Private goods and Public goods.

Supply price. The price at which project inputs are available, or the price at which an alternative to the project output is available.

Switching value. In Sensitivity analysis, the percentage change in a variable for the project decision to change, that is, for the ENPV to become zero or the EIRR to fall to the cut-off rate.

Traded inputs and outputs. Goods and services where production or consumption affect a countrys level of imports or exports. Project effects estimated in terms of traded goods and services can be measured directly through their Border price equivalent valuethe world price for the traded product for the country concerned, adjusted to the project location. Border prices for exported outputs can be adjusted to the project location by subtracting the economic cost of transport, distribution, handling, and processing for export measured at economic prices. Border prices for imported inputs can be adjusted by adding such costs to the project site. Outputs that substitute for imports can be adjusted by the difference in economic transport, distribution, and handling costs between the existing point of sale and the project site. Project inputs that reduce exports can be adjusted by the difference in economic domestic costs between the point of production and the project location.

Transactions costs. The costs, other than price, incurred in the process of exchanging goods and services. These costs include the costs of negotiating and enforcing contracts, and the costs of collecting charges for goods and services provided. The scale of economic and financial transactions costs can affect the market structure for a good.

Transfer payment. A payment made without receiving any good or service in return. Transfer payments transfer command over resources from one party to another without reducing or increasing the amount of resources available as a whole. Taxes, duties, and subsidies are examples of items that, in some circumstances, may be considered to be transfer payments.

Unit of Account. The currency used to express the economic value of project inputs and outputs. Generally the currency of the country in which the project is located will be used as the unit of account. Occasionally an international currency may be used as the unit of account. Economic values using the domestic price numeraire can be expressed in either a domestic or international currency. Similarly, economic values using the world price numeraire can be expressed in either a domestic or international currency.

User charge. A charge levied upon users for the services rendered or goods supplied by a project.

Willingness to accept (WTA). The minimum amount of compensation consumers would be willing to accept for foregoing units of consumption.

Willingness to pay (WTP). The maximum amount consumers are prepared to pay for a good or service. WTP can be estimated as the total area under a demand curve. Changes in WTP can occur when the demand curve itself shifts because of changes in income or in the prices of substitute goods.

Without and with project. The future situation without a proposed project and the future situation with the proposed project. The difference between these two situations constitutes the impact of the investment, policy change, or capacity building activities. To be distinguished from the situations before and after a project that do not allow for expected changes without the project.

World price. The price at which goods and services are available on the international market. The world price for a country is the border price, the price in foreign exchange at which imports are available at the port, railhead, or trucking point, or the price in foreign exchange received for exports at the port, railhead, or trucking point. Significant changes in relative world prices should be incorporated into the economic prices used in the analysis of projects.